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Bildung und Arbeit sind in Deutschland traditionell entlang beruflicher Strukturen organisiert. Mit diesem Forschungsbeitrag wird hinterfragt, ob und, wenn ja, wie Veränderungen in der Wirtschaft und im Bildungswesen zu einer Lockerung dieser Strukturen beitragen. Denn für junge Erwachsene ist es von Bedeutung, inwieweit die mit einem Beruf erlernten Fähigkeiten in Erwerbsarbeit verwertet werden können. Die 1970er- bis 2000er-Jahre setzen für diese Fragestellung die idealen Rahmenbedingungen: Die mikroelektronische Revolution beschleunigt den strukturellen Wandel der Wirtschaft, atypische Arbeitsverhältnisse entstehen. Der Trend zur Akademisierung nimmt zu. Es wird gezeigt, dass in diesem schnelllebigen Umfeld die Bedeutung formaler beruflicher Zertifizierungen gestiegen ist. Allerdings sind Wiedereinstiege in das Bildungssystem auch stark intrinsisch motiviert. Daraus lassen sich Anforderungen an die zukünftige Gestaltung von Bildungscurricula ableiten. Education and work in Germany are traditionally organized along occupational structures. This research contribution questions whether and, if so, how changes in the economy and the education system contribute to a loosening of these structures. For young adults, it is important to what extent the skills learned in an occupation can be utilized in gainful employment. The 1970s to 2000s set the ideal framework for this question: The microelectronic revolution accelerates the structural change of the economy, atypical employment relationships emerge. The trend toward academization increases. It is shown that in this fast-moving environment, the importance of formal vocational certi cations has increased. However, re-entry into the education system is also strongly intrinsically motivated. From this, requirements for the future design of educational curricula can be derived.

In dieser Studie werden auf der Basis einer Weiterentwicklung des ZEW Mikrosimulationsmodells des Abgaben- Steuer- und Transfersystems fiskalische und individuelle Nettoerträge und Renditen von Bildungsinvestitionen für junge Erwachsene bezogen auf das Jahr 2016 untersucht und mit früheren Schätzungen bezogen auf das Jahr 2012 verglichen. Nach den Ergebnissen liegt die fiskalische Bildungsrendite pro Auszubildenden bei einer Ausbildungsdauer von vier Jahren und über das Erwerbsleben hinweg bei 20,6%, im Vergleich zu einer Person ohne Berufsausbildung. Im Falle von Personen mit einem Schul- und Hochschulabschluss, erworben im Alter zwischen 17 und 25 Jahren und betrachtet bis zum Alter von 66 Jahren, beträgt die fiskalische Rendite 10,2%, ebenfalls im Vergleich zu einer Person ohne Berufsausbildung. Während die individuellen Bildungsrenditen aus dem Bruttoeinkommen im Mittel bei über 10% liegen, schrumpfen sie nach Abzug von Steuern und Sozialabgaben sowie aufgrund des Transferentzugs auf etwa 6%. Dies verdeutlicht empirisch das Ausmaß signifikanter Interdependenzen zwischen Bildungs-, Steuer- und Sozialpolitik. Im Vergleich zu 2012 sind die fiskalischen Renditen für die Ausbildung etwas gestiegen und für die Kombination Schule/Studium etwas gefallen.

"Continuing vocational training is considered to play an important role in both social and occupational inclusion. The present paper will analyse the influence this exerts on participation in continuing vocational training and on private expenditure, the latter being measured in terms of the costs borne by the trainees themselves and the amount of free time invested. Consideration needs to be accorded to the fact that individual social groups enjoy different levels of access to continuing training and to the circumstance that their commitment to continuing training is influenced by varying prevailing general conditions. For this reason, the principle focus of the paper will be on the question of how these general conditions or work-life situations can be described and on whether it is possible to identify various groups. The main features of vocational orientation measures will also be included in the analysis. The basis for the study is the data collected by an expert commission set up to look into the financing of lifelong learning and the participation or non-participation in continuing training and the results of an investigation conducted by the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training into the costs and benefits of continuing vocational training for individuals. These two studies are based on the same statistical population and render it possible to observe aspects of both continuing training participation and private expenditure in terms of how these relate to continuing training. It becomes readily apparent that persons may be allocated to groups in accordance with the work-life situation characteristics they display, these groups exhibiting differences in terms of inclusion and investment in continuing vocational training. Although gender is revealed to exert no significant individual influence on commitment to continuing training, women in particular form a group which has its basis in their work-life situation, the fact that the latter tends to present some difficulties meaning that a lower level of commitment to continuing training may be exhibited. In addition to the above, vocational orientation measures exert a clear influence on commitment to continuing training." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en)) Additional Information Kurzfassung (deutsch) Executive summary (English)

"The German dual apprenticeship system has come under pressure in recent years because enterprises have not been willing to provide a sufficient number of apprenticeship positions. An argument that is frequently put forward is that the gap could be closed if more firms were willing to incur net costs during the training period. This paper investigates on the basis of representative data whether German enterprises do indeed incur net costs on average during the apprenticeship period, i.e. whether the impact of an increase in the share of apprentices on contemporary profits is negative. The paper uses the representative linked employer-employee panel data of the IAB (LIAB) and takes into account possible endogeneity of training intensity and unobserved heterogeneity in the profit estimation by employing panel system GMM methods. An increase in the share of apprentices has no effect on profits. This can be interpreted as a first indication that most establishments in Germany do not invest more in apprentices than their productivity effects during the apprenticeship period." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en)) Additional Information Kurzfassung (deutsch) Executive summary (English)

Berufliche Weiterbildung ist eine wichtige Voraussetzung, um die Beschäftigungsquote Älterer zu erhöhen. Allerdings muss es sich für den einzelnen Betrieb auch lohnen, in die Weiterbildung seiner älteren Beschäftigten zu investieren. Betriebe, die dies tun, dürften daher ein hohes Interesse haben, diese Beschäftigten zu halten. Tatsächlich zeigen Daten aus dem IAB-Betriebspanel zumindest für Ostdeutschland, dass mit der Weiterbildungsaktivität auch die Beschäftigungsstabilität der Älteren steigt. In Westdeutschland wird dieser Effekt allerdings durch andere Faktoren überlagert.

"This paper adopts an economic perspective for an investigation of the correlation between cost-benefit aspects and company decisions regarding training. A differentiation is drawn between the basic decision about whether a company should provide its own training and the stipulation of the number of trainees. The basis of the data used is information on the cost-benefit aspects of training from a survey conducted by the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training in 2001, the information being supplied by companies which provide training and companies which do not provide training. It becomes apparent that cost-benefit aspects are highly significant in both phases of the company training decision. Possible starting points for vocational education and training policy primarily emerge from encouraging additional companies to provide training rather than from increasing the number of training places at companies already providing training, however. In overall terms, longer-term benefits appear to be accorded more importance than short-term cost aspects." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en)) Additional Information Kurzfassung (deutsch) Executive summary (English)

"In this paper the further training behaviour of firms is explained using a double hurdle approach: the first hurdle is that the further training of employees is worthwhile for the firms in general, the second hurdle is that demand for further training arises. The empirical test is conducted using data from the IAB establishment panel: by combining the balanced panel for three waves into a cross-section it is possible to determine the effect of extending the observation period for the provision of further training (probit estimates) and the intensity of further training (quasi-likelihood estimates). The results confirm the double hurdle approach: variables for capital intensity, innovation orientation and the employee structure have a significant impact on whether further training is generally worthwhile for the firms, and investment in data processing and in the field of communication as well as organisational changes are significant motivations for providing further training." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en)) Additional Information Kurzfassung (deutsch) Executive summary (English)

"Whilst in applied empirical research, training in general human capital is mainly explained by structural characteristics of firms, this paper introduces business expectations as an additional explanatory factor. Business expectations are strictly time-variate and firm-specific and reflect both a firm's development in competitive markets and in the business cycle. We assume that a firm's business expectations strongly modify the cost-utility concept for firms' decisions as regards providing apprenticeship places. When controlling for firms' structural characteristics, static econometric models support our assumption that a change in business expectations leads to an asymmetric adjustment process of firms' qualitative decisions regarding apprenticeship training. Concerning the quantitative decision as to how many apprenticeship places a firm provides we found a significant but not asymmetric response to a change in business expectations. A dynamic approach confirms the results obtained in the static models of a symmetric quantitative adjustment process in a short-term perspective. In a longer perspective the dynamic model supports the assumption of an asymmetric quantitative adjustment process. Further on an application shows that an increasing uncertainty regarding business expectations tends to reduce the apprenticeship training at firm level." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en)) Additional Information Kurzfassung (deutsch) Executive summary (English)

"This paper studies individual log real wage change of east and west Germans over the period 1990/91 to 1995/96 using data from the German Socio-economic Panel. Parameters are estimated by median regression. Human capital theory and job mobility theories have implications for wage changes that differ between a transition and a non-transition economy. Wage changes decrease in experience according to human capital theory. But during a transition shock the introduction of new production techniques implies that experienced and inexperienced workers invest similarly in on-the-job training. Hence, annual wage changes do not vary much with experience. The estimation results reflect this difference. Matching and on-the-job search theory imply the following: A higher a worker's experience the higher his/ her match quality and in turn the less (more) he/ she can gain (lose) from an additional voluntary (involuntary) job change. But a transition shock destroys the high match quality of many experienced workers' jobs, so that wage changes due to voluntary and involuntary job change vary less with experience in a transition country than in a non-transition country. For involuntary job change, I find evidence for this hypothesis. Causal effects of job mobility on wages are estimated by comparing wage changes of this period movers with wage changes of next period movers. The results show that voluntary job changes raise real wages of both east and west Germans; involuntary changes tend to lower real hourly wages." (author's abstract) Untersucht wird die individuelle Reallohnentwicklung von Ost- und Westdeutschen für den Zeitraum 1990/91 bis 1995/96 auf der Grundlage von Daten aus dem Sozioökonomischen Panel. Die Parameter werden mittels Medianregression geschätzt. Theorien des Humankapitals und der beruflichen Mobilität gehen davon aus, dass Lohnänderungen in Übergangsökonomien und Ökonomien ohne Transformation unterschiedlich verlaufen. Lohnänderungen verringern sich laut der Humankapitaltheorie mit zunehmender Berufserfahrung. Werden jedoch durch einen Transformations-Schock neue Produktionstechniken eingeführt, müssen Arbeitnehmer mit und ohne Berufserfahrung in gleicher Weise in die berufliche Weiterbildung investieren. Zudem hat die Berufserfahrung keinen Einfluss auf jährliche Lohnänderungen. Die Ergebnisse belegen diesen Unterschied. Matching- und Arbeitsplatzsuchtheorie besagen folgendes: Je höher die Berufserfahrung einer Arbeitskraft ist, um so höher ist ihre Matching-Qualität und um so weniger (mehr) kann sie durch einen zusätzlichen freiwilligen (unfreiwilligen) Arbeitsplatzwechsel gewinnen (verlieren). Ein Transformations-Schock zerstört jedoch die hohe Matching-Qualität erfahrener Arbeitskräfte, so dass Lohnänderungen infolge freiwilliger und unfreiwilliger Arbeitsplatzwechsel in einer Übergangsökonomie in geringerem Maße von der Berufserfahrung abhängen als in einer Ökonomie ohne Transformation. Diese These findet der Autor für unfreiwillige Arbeitsplatzwechsel bestätigt. Kausale Auswirkungen der beruflichen Mobilität auf die Löhne werden durch den Vergleich von Lohnänderungen von Arbeitsplatzwechslern des ersten Untersuchungszeitraum mit Arbeitsplatzwechslern des zweiten Untersuchungszeitraums geschätzt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass freiwillige Arbeitsplatzwechsel sowohl die Löhne von Ost- als auch von Westdeutschen steigern; unfreiwillige Arbeitsplatzwechsel hingegen wirken sich nachteilig auf die Reallöhne aus. (IAB)

"This paper presents a regional case study of the labour market and its surrounding of Vinh City in central Vietnam, based on surveys conducted in 1999 and 2005. By including the time dimension and surveying samples with over 6000 individuals respectively it is possible to identify precisely the changes that have taken place within six years. The results reflect an enormous development process. Incomes increased fast and many structural parameters of the economy adapted to the new institutional setting of a market economy. The absolute level of income and of the standard of living is still low, however. A key finding of the analyses is that vocational training is meeting with large demand in private enterprises and is therefore of considerable importance for Vietnam's development process. Another important finding is that educational investments pay more in private enterprises." (author's abstract) Der Beitrag präsentiert eine regionale Fallstudie des Arbeitsmarkts der vietnamesischen Stadt Vinh. Mittels zweier Studien aus den Jahren 1999 und 2005, die mehr als 6000 Individuen einbeziehen, wird der Wandel, der sich in diesen sechs Jahren vollzogen hat, nachgezeichnet. Die Ergebnisse belegen einen enormen Entwicklungsprozess. Die Einkommen stiegen schnell und zahlreiche strukturelle Parameter haben sich an die neuen marktwirtschaftlichen Bedingungen angepasst. Dennoch sind das absolute Einkommensniveau und der Lebensstandard nach wie vor niedrig. Ein wichtiges Ergebnis der Untersuchung ist die zentrale Bedeutung der Berufsausbildung für den vietnamesischen Entwicklungsprozess, da die Berufsausbildung dem großen Bedarf in der Privatwirtschaft entgegenkommt. Ein weiteres Ergebnis ist, dass sich Bildungsinvestitionen in Unternehmen der Privatwirtschaft stärker auszahlen. (IAB)

"Although participation in continuing vocational training is often found to be associated with considerable individual benefits, a puzzlingly large number of people still do not take part in training. In order to solve the puzzle we distinguish between temporary and chronic non-participants. Previous studies have shown that training participants and non-participants differ in unobservable characteristics and therefore self-select into training or not. We show that even non-participants cannot be treated as a homogeneous group: there are those who never take part in training (chronic non-participants) and those who are not currently taking part (temporary (non-)participants). Using a unique data set of non-participants commissioned by the German 'Expert Commission on Financing Lifelong Learning' and covering a very large number of individuals not taking part in training, we separate and compare chronic and temporary non-participants. By estimating a sample selection model using maximum likelihood estimation we take potential selection effects into account: temporary (non-)participants may be more motivated or may have different inherent skills than chronic nonparticipants. We find that chronic non-participants would have higher costs than temporary (non-)participants and their short-term benefits associated with their current jobs would be lower. However, in the long run even chronic non-participants would benefit similarly from participation due to improved prospects on the labor market. The results indicate that chronic non-participants either misperceive future developments or suffer from an exceptionally high discount rate, which in turn leads in their view to a negative cost-benefit ratio for training." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku) ((en)) Additional Information Kurzfassung (deutsch) Executive summary (English)