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Present report describes the Financial and Economic Value database (FEVD) collected during the first stage of the NATURVATION project. The FEVD includes monetary values of nature-based solutions together with respective sources and methods by which these values were obtained. The database and the report directly address the main objective of WP1 of the project of fostering learning and collaboration across different knowledge communities involved in the project and beyond, to develop a new analytical perspective on urban NBS. Nature-based solutions (NBS) are actions inspired by, supported by, or copied from nature; both using and enhancing existing solutions to challenges, as well as exploring more novel solutions (European Commission, 2015). They are positive responses to societal challenges, and can have the potential to simultaneously meet environmental, social and economic objectives. Essentially, NBS is an overarching concept that builds on, and supports, other closely related concepts, such as the ecosystem approach, ecosystem services, ecosystem-based adaptation and mitigation, green engineering and green and blue infrastructure.Conceptually, the report and the database hinge on a common transdisciplinary framework that has been established within the NATURVATION project to categorise NBS in various domains (e.g. ecological and landscape domains), and in accordance with an ecosystem service classification. This framework is also used to compile the FEVD, which aims to link monetary values to these classifications and service indicators as much as possible.The sources include academic papers published on economic valuation of NBS in the last 40 years. The FEVD includes 205 value entries for NBS originating from 105 studies with a broad geographical coverage. It covers both revealed preference (RP) and stated preference (SP) methods, and include values elicited by means of contingent valuation and choice modelling (SP), as well as hedonic pricing and benefit transfer methods (RP).

De eigen bijdragen voor langdurige zorg zijn in Nederland in de afgelopen jaren fors gestegen. Nadat sinds de jaren 1990 vooral het inkomen (inclusief dat uit vermogen) bepalend was voor de hoogte van de eigen bijdrage, telt nu ook het vermogen zelf weer mee als mogelijke financieringsbron daarvan. In dit NEA paper bekijken we welke personen meer zijn gaan betalen. Om dat na te gaan, maken we gebruik van een unieke koppeling van gegevens uit verschillende bronnen op individueel niveau. Onze conclusies zijn als volgt: hoewel eigen bijdragen aan de langdurige zorg een aantrekkelijke mogelijkheid lijken voor het inperken van groei in de zorguitgaven, is het niet al goud wat blinkt. Enerzijds komt dat omdat ouderen met een bovenmodaal inkomen veel minder gebruik maken van langdurige zorg vergeleken met ouderen met onder modaal inkomen. Dit betreft zowel zorg zonder verblijf (4 keer minder) als zorg met verblijf (6 keer minder). Daardoor dragen zorggebruikers die minder verdienen en die tot de ‘risicogroepen’ behoren, te weten eenpersoonshuishoudens en huurders, de zwaarste last van de totale uitgaven aan de langdurige zorg. Anderzijds zal de invoering van een extra vermogensbijtelling voor eigen bijdragen aan langdurige zorg vooral zorggebruikers met middeninkomens treffen maar geen hogere inkomensgroepen. De budgettaire opbrengst zal tegenvallen en de solidariteit tussen meer- en minderverdieners zal afnemen.

Dit paper modelleert de adoptie van elektrische auto’s in Nederland aan de hand van de innovatietheorie van Rogers (Rogers, 2003). Hierbij verdelen we de potentiële consumenten onder in vijf adoptiesegmenten die systematisch verschillen in psychologische en demografische kenmerken. Met behulp van een stated preference-onderzoek hebben we de individuele voorkeuren voor conventionele, hybride en elektrische auto’s achterhaald tijdens de drie belangrijkste adoptiefases: de introductie-, groei- en volwassenheidsfase van de innovatieverspreiding.Onze resultaten laten zien dat voorkeuren van consumenten in verschillende adoptiefasesverschillen van elkaar. Bijvoorbeeld kortere oplaadtijden vergroten de kans op de adoptie van elektrische auto’s. Het belang van laadtijden vermindert echter niet gedurende de adoptiefasen maar wordt juist sterker. Daarnaast is het sleepvermogen een belangrijke eigenschap die consumentenvoorkeuren voor elektrische auto’s op de Nederlandse markt bepaalt in de groeien volwassenheidsfases. De CO2-uitstoot is een van bepalende factoren voor de voertuigkeuze in de introductie- en volwassenheidsfases, maar verrassend genoeg niet in de groeifase. Het huidige belasting- en subsidiesysteem lijkt ongunstig uit te pakken voor elektrische auto’s ten gunste van hybride auto’s vooral tijdens de groeifase. Onze bevindingen impliceren dat beleid gericht op de grootschalige adoptie van elektrische auto’s moet inzetten op financiële voordelen (groeifase), de ontwikkeling van oplaadinfrastructuur (groei- en volwassenheidsfases), de verbetering van de voertuigfunctionaliteit (groei- en volwassenheidsfases) en het verstrekken van informatie over de kritieke auto-eigenschappen (alle fases).

In this article, we propose an integrated direct and indirect flood risk model for small- and large-scale flood events, allowing for dynamic modeling of total economic losses from a flood event to a full economic recovery. A novel approach is taken that translates direct losses of both capital and labor into production losses using the Cobb-Douglas production function, aiming at improved consistency in loss accounting. The recovery of the economy is modeled using a hybrid input-output model and applied to the port region of Rotterdam, using six different flood events (1/10 up to 1/10,000). This procedure allows gaining a better insight regarding the consequences of both high- and low-probability floods. The results show that in terms of expected annual damage, direct losses remain more substantial relative to the indirect losses (approximately 50% larger), but for low-probability events the indirect losses outweigh the direct losses. Furthermore, we explored parameter uncertainty using a global sensitivity analysis, and varied critical assumptions in the modeling framework related to, among others, flood duration and labor recovery, using a scenario approach. Our findings have two important implications for disaster modelers and practitioners. First, high-probability events are qualitatively different from low-probability events in terms of the scale of damages and full recovery period. Second, there are substantial differences in parameter influence between high-probability and low-probability flood modeling. These findings suggest that a detailed approach is required when assessing the flood risk for a specific region.

In this paper, we apply a dynamic innovation diffusion framework to model adoption of full electric vehicles where we explicitly distinguish three major phases of adoption: introduction, growth and maturity. We combine this approach with an SP study to elicit individual preferences for conventional, hybrid and full electric vehicles. We apply a nested logit model to estimate the preferences for EVs based on the total costs of ownership approach that includes monetary and non-monetary costs of owing a vehicle. With negative estimates of WTP for hybrid vehicles (of about €900 on a yearly basis), our results suggest abolishment of subsidization of hybrid vehicles as they potentially crowd out EV adoption. Besides, EVs need to be subsidized on average at €2,000 per year, and this amount is decreasing in the process of vehicle adoption. Time costs associated with rapid charging are a substantial hindrance to EV adoption with average value of time of €63 per hour, increasing for each subsequent consumer segment from €48 to €122 per hour. Environmental costs of CO2 reductions are valued far above the market average at €160 per ton, but determine EV choices only at a later stage of adoption. Finally, towing potential is valued on average at €540 per year and it is about the same for all consumer segments throughout the adoption phases. Policy implications are discussed involving a mix of structural and monetary incentives.

The focus of this programme was on the development of decision making tools based on cost benefit analysis under uncertainty, for analysing adaptation and mitigation options related to spatial planning in the Netherlands. The full programme focused on the methodological issues for cost benefit analysis (CBA) and multi-criteria analysis (MCA) in a spatially explicit and dynamic context, including ancillary benefits and the issue of how to allocate costs to various domains, if ancillary benefits exist

The focus of this programme was on the development of decision making tools based on cost benefit analysis under uncertainty, for analysing adaptation and mitigation options related to spatial planning in the Netherlands. The full programme focused on the methodological issues for cost benefit analysis (CBA) and multi-criteria analysis (MCA) in a spatially explicit and dynamic context, including ancillary benefits and the issue of how to allocate costs to various domains, if ancillary benefits exist

This paper enriches existing valuation literature in a number of ways by presenting context-specific estimates of immaterial damage. First, it offers an estimation of value of statistical life (VOSL) in the context of a natural hazard (flooding). Next, as one of the contributions, alongside with less biased estimate of VOSL (euro 6.8 mln) it also provides estimates of the value of statistical injury (VOSI, euro 92,000), and of the value of statistical evacuation (VOSE, euro 2,400). Our estimated indicators are plausible and stay robust throughout various estimations. For flood protection policy in the Netherlands, a higher value of VOSL forthcoming from this research would imply 'underprotection' under current conditions. Another important finding concerns the composition of the total value of immaterial damages, where value of fatalities or value of evacuation may dominate depending on the prevailing floor risk circumstances. This implies that, first, VOSL is not an adequate proxy for immaterial damages since it understates prospective benefits of designated protective measures. Second, spatially differentiated composition of immaterial damages should be explicitly considered to guide policy decisions.

The focus of this programme was on the development of decision making tools based on cost benefit analysis under uncertainty, for analysing adaptation and mitigation options related to spatial planning in the Netherlands. The full programme focused on the methodological issues for cost benefit analysis (CBA) and multi-criteria analysis (MCA) in a spatially explicit and dynamic context, including ancillary benefits and the issue of how to allocate costs to various domains, if ancillary benefits exist.

Nederland wordt in de wereld vaak als leidend gezien op het gebied van overstromingsbeleid. Honderden jaren van ervaring met dijken, pompen en dammen hebben het beeld gecreëerd dat Nederland buitengewoon succesvol opereert in het tegengaan van overstromingen. Bij het voeren van dergelijk beleid wordt verwacht dat naast technische oplossingen voor het overstromings-probleem er een balans gevonden wordt tussen de beschermingsniveaus van dijkringen en de beschermde waarden binnen de ring. Voor de Deltawerken legde het economisch onderzoek van Tinbergen daartoe een fundament (Tinbergen 1960). Ondanks een sterke groei van de beschermde waarden, heeft in de praktijk echter geen adequate herijking van de overschrijdingskansen plaatsgevonden. Recent zijn nieuwe aanzetten gegeven om de relatie te leggen tussen kansen en beschermde waarden. In de Kengetallen Kosten Baten Analyse (KKBA) van 2008 zijn voor alle gebieden in Nederland berekeningen uitgevoerd om economisch optimale overstromingskansen te bepalen. Het uitkomen van de KKBA was onderdeel van nieuw waterbeleid om meer aandacht te geven aan de risico’s van overstromingen. De overgang naar het hernieuwde beleid gericht op risico’s zou echter ook gepaard moeten gaan met een verandering in de verhouding tussen burger en overheid. In de rapporten van MVW-MBZ (2007) en (2008) wordt gesteld dat de samenleving zich meer bewust zou moeten worden van de risico’s van overstromingen en dat individuen (huishoudens en bedrijven) daarnaar zouden moeten gaan handelen. Dat is een opvallende ontwikkeling in een land waarin een dijk hét voorbeeld is van een ‘public good’. In het PROmO onderzoek is met behulp van enquêtes de relatie onder- zocht tussen opvattingen, kennis en percepties van burgers over overstromingen en de bereidheid om te betalen voor het verminderen van overstromingsrisico’s (betalingsbereidheid). Studies naar de waardering van overstromingsrisico’s zijn zeldzaam voor Nederland; ook internationaal is er weinig literatuur beschikbaar die de relatie legt tussen betalingsbereidheid (Willingness To Pay, WTP ) en risicopercepties. In dit essay gaan we in op de resultaten van het PROmO onderzoek. We staan stil bij regionale verschillen in betalingsbereidheid en de invloed van individuele kenmerken van burgers op de betalingsbereidheid. Kortom, in dit essay wordt de link gelegd tussen waterbewustzijn en perceptie, en tussen betalingsbereidheid en de KKBA

Effectively, one of the principal challenges for the Netherlands in the face of climate change is: How should we manage flood risk so that regional needs are adequately captured? Recent studies however point at the existing gap between risk perceptions of the public and the experts, which seems to become an apple of discord in the Dutch flood management. While public authorities are not willing to emphasize the growing threats that flooding are posing to the country, the issue is pressing hard to be addressed. In this paper we offer a summary of a recent study on flood risk perceptions in the Netherlands that precludes the findings regarding the willingness to pay for (public) measures contrasted to taking (individual) protective action. Clearly, arising debates around the issue of public-private (shared) responsibility in addressing flood risk add more fuel to the fire, where views seem to be polarized. We attempt thus to link this variation in behavioural intention to the willingness to pay for improvements in flood safety and explore the nature of this relationship. We observe in addition that regional differences do matter, which has direct implications for policy and practice. In particular, we suggest that measures tailored to serve local needs and attuned to local perceptions should prove to provide most feasible solutions.

In this paper we focus on the consequences of a major catastrophe for a modern economy, where 'major' means that a significant part of the economy's productive capacity is lost. In the aftermath of the catastrophe, authorities have to address a great number of issues. We show, using basic principles, that input-output methodology offers a flexible set of tools to address three fundamental issues: (1) obtaining a systematic insight in the imbalances that exist in the non-affected area after the catastrophe, (2) determining the nature of these imbalances and the way they affect options in the recovery process, and (3) introducing the elements of a cost-benefit analysis in the context of prevention and precautionary policies. Our approach strongly supports the need for extensive contingency planning in the presence of major natural hazards. A numerical example accompanies the various steps of the exercise.

Input-output analysis (I-O) is increasingly used in studies of sudden catastrophes such as earthquakes, hurricanes, or, in the case of The Netherlands, major flooding. Unfortunately, in catastrophe analysis, there is no general consensus over the points of departure. Therefore, we need a basic notion of “where to start from”. One task the I-O modeller faces after the disaster is to construct a plausible basis for the recovery and reconstruction efforts. Here the literature has developed the concept of the so-called event matrix. The event matrix is an I-O compatible matrix that traces the development of the situation at selected intervals after the catastrophe and during the reconstruction phase. However, the concept of I-O on the basis of a well-founded “event matrix” theory is still developing. It is the purpose of this paper to put forward a specific point of departure in disaster analysis, starting from I-O fundamentals and introducing the concept of a “basic equation” as a necessary first step in the construction of an event matrix