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A flexible conducting lossy shield is developed and demonstrated for a reduction in the back radiation of a linearly polarized X-band patch antenna for Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) applications. The proposed structure comprises a flexible patch antenna backed by a laminated sheet of Expanded Graphite (EG). This flexible sheet is prepared from EG powder pressed uniformly over a thin adhesive tape. The conducting nature of EG is exploited, and the EG sheet is used as a protective shield to prevent back radiation emanating out of the WBAN antenna from propagating toward the human body. The antenna performance is tested over human wrist phantoms experimentally and through full wave simulation studies. The results indicate the marginal variation in the −10 dB impedance bandwidth with a slight increase in the gain and directivity values for a resonant frequency in the range 9.7–10.3 GHz (bending radius variation of 40, 30, and 20 mm and along two bending planes). A measured on-body gain of 6.7 dBi is exhibited by the antenna backed by the EG shield and bent over a 20 mm radius human wrist phantom with an S11 of −19 dB, a −10 dB % bandwidth of 8%, and a directivity of 9.4 dBi. All the other bending configurations exhibit values higher than these. Electric field and Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) studies reveal a reduction in wave penetration by the EG shield antenna inside the wrist phantom with a decrease in the SAR by a maximum of 5%. The measured front-to-back ratio values indicate the lowering of back radiation with a maximum average increase of 76% exhibited by an EG backed antenna. The developed EG shield has an additional advantage of being a standalone structure, which can be integrated with any wearable antenna for a possible reduction in the back radiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT In capacitive human body communication (HBC), the close environment strongly influences the signal return path. Many studies often overestimate the path loss due to the use of bulky measuring instruments that create parasitic return paths. Additionally, in the few cases where wearable battery‐powered HBC devices are employed, the impact of factors such as inter‐electrode distance, body constitution of the test subject, electrode‐to‐skin contact, and so on, on the power path loss is not consistently examined. In this paper, we present the design of a wearable battery‐powered HBC transmitter and receiver that enable a realistic estimation of the power path loss. We also investigate the impact of inter‐electrode distance, body constitution, posture and pressure of electrode‐skin contact. The transmitted and received voltages are first estimated using a single frequency discrete Fourier transform algorithm. The power path loss is then deduced using preliminary measured impedances of the transmitter–receiver and electrodes. Matching networks on the transmitter and receiver side are added to optimize the power path loss. Measurements indicate that for a 20 cm inter‐electrode distance, the path loss is approximately −37 dB at 21 MHz (IEEE 802.15.6 HBC frequency). Moreover, the inter‐electrode distance significantly impacts path loss, with a variation of over 10 dB measured for distances ranging from 20 to 100 cm. Additionally, body constitution moderately influences path loss, with a variation of less than 4 dB observed across six subjects. Body posture and electrode‐skin contact pressure significantly affect path loss, with measured differences of 4.5 dB between standing and sitting on the floor positions and between strong and soft contact. The impact of modifying the transmission frequency has also been studied, showing a path loss variation of approximatively −3 dB between 42 and 21 MHz. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Advancing the efficiency and reliability of wireless sensor networks is a paramount pursuit in modern networking research. In this context, we introduce a groundbreaking approach based on Hidden Markov Chain (HMC) modeling with opportunistic routing, harnessed by the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) mechanism. Our innovative algorithm addresses key challenges in Wireless Body Area Networks, including delay, throughput, and bandwidth utilization. By strategically integrating the HMC model, which captures intricate state transitions and emission probabilities, our proposed method introduces a robust solution for optimizing node connections and routing decisions. This fusion of HMC and opportunistic routing capitalizes on the strengths of both paradigms, enhancing the network's ability to make intelligent decisions in dynamic scenarios. Through rigorous simulations, we showcase the algorithm's prowess in achieving efficient data transmission. The empirical evidence from these simulations underscores the algorithm's superiority when juxtaposed against state-of-the-art mechanisms such as Simple Multi-Packet Access (SMPA) and Priority-based Congestion-avoidance Routing Protocol (PCRP). Our algorithm not only outperforms existing solutions in terms of delay, throughput, and bandwidth utilization, but it also showcases its ability to adapt to varying network conditions, making it a versatile tool for diverse applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human fertility monitoring, whether for natural conception or artificial insemination and fertilization, presents a significant challenge for both physicians and patients. Detecting the presence of eggs in the fallopian tube and timely communication of this information to the healthcare team and the patient remains an elusive goal; in this paper, we propose a novel, hybrid communication architecture for this purpose. Our architecture combines an intrabody nano‐sensor network for detecting the presence of eggs in the female fallopian tube with a body area network (BAN) to receive information from the intrabody network and transmit it over‐the‐air to the required point (physician, nurse, or patient). To investigate the system's performance, we conducted preliminary simulations using a particle‐based stochastic simulator. The results revealed interesting relationships between information rates achievable, signal‐to‐noise ratio (SNR), distance, number of sensors, detection delay, viscosity, and temperature. Specifically, we found that increasing viscosity led to an increase in detection delay, while increasing temperature had the opposite effect. With data rates of up to 300 Mbps achievable at an SNR of 45, our proposed architecture ensures near‐zero latency, minimum energy consumption, and high throughput for efficient fertility monitoring. By integrating advanced communication technologies and sensor networks, our approach paves the way for improved fertility monitoring, enabling timely interventions and personalized care. These findings contribute to the development of a cooperative intra‐ to extra‐body network that enhances accuracy and enables real‐time monitoring for effective fertility management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The heart that beats with an irregular rhythm, sometimes too fast, quickly gets tired. Even though it is the most common cardiac abnormality, atrial fibrillation remains very complex to diagnose. The electrocardiogram (ECG) contains much information about the functioning and possible pathologies of the heart. Artificial intelligence is reshaping healthcare and can be used to diagnose health abnormalities or predict events. The paper aims to combine advanced ECG signal processing with a deep learning technique. After using several filtering algorithms, we divide the ECG signal and then convert it into the frequency domain, precisely the fractional Fourier transform, then into small equal parts so that each contains the typical features of the signal. We collect them in the form of simple arrays. The next step is to convert these arrays into images, which involves transforming each one-dimensional ECG beat into a two-dimensional image. We have relied on this MIT-BIH database research. In the classification phase, 80% was used as training data and 20% for validation and testing. In the end, we classified five categories of heart disease. The proposed technique shows promising results, compared to other similar works, with an accuracy rate of 99.34%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utilization of Internet of Things (IoT)‐based networks in healthcare systems has witnessed a notable increase, particularly in services like remote patient monitoring. However, specific vulnerabilities have become apparent as more individuals connect to these networks. One pressing concern revolves around safeguarding the privacy of users' confidential information. Given the extensive reliance on sensitive data in such services, apprehensions arise regarding the security of this information within the system. Moreover, the substantial volume of real‐time data transmission poses scalability challenges for the network. This work introduces SecureCare, a novel solution for enhancing wearable IoT healthcare by proposing a blockchain‐empowered Wearable Body Area Network (WBAN) framework. Our aim to employ blockchain technology stems from its robust security capabilities, thanks to its tamperproof and decentralized structure that effectively safeguards network data. Finally, SecureCare was evaluated on a public blockchain network, where it demonstrated improvements in efficiency and reliability. This validation confirms its potential as a robust solution for enhancing security in wearable IoT healthcare systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a comprehensive methodology for improving Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) in healthcare systems using Enhanced Gray Wolf Optimization (GWO). The methodology begins with WBAN initialization and the configuration of critical network parameters. To improve network performance and trustworthiness, direct trust calculations, historical trust , and energy trust, as well as energy consumption models based on distance and transmission type, are integrated. The use of an Enhanced GWO approach makes it easier to select optimal cluster heads, guided by a customized fitness function that balances trust and energy efficiency. This work has been carried on a PC with 16 GB RAM using MATLAB R2022b tool for simulation purpose. The methodology outperforms existing methods in terms of throughput, computation time, and residual energy. This promising methodology provides improved data routing, energy efficiency, and trustworthiness, making it a valuable asset in WBAN-based healthcare systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

eHealth includes services and systems of healthcare and information technologies. A patient monitoring system is essential to have a medical professional be aware of the patient's condition. On the other hand, telecare medical information system (TMIS) makes a doctor able to make diagnoses and provide treatment advice to a patient via the Internet. How to ensure convenience and user privacy for eHealth at the same time is always an urgent issue. Because sensor networks make obtaining instantaneous information feasible, we first analyze related protocols and makes further discussions with proper modifications to ensure the patient monitoring system's security. Then we propose a biometrics-based mutual authentication scheme to ensure privacy and security for TMIS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper introduces a compact patch antenna with ladder-slot configuration designed for wearable applications. The antenna achieves miniaturization through the incorporation of partial ground and slots on the patch. Operating within the frequency range of 1.5 GHz (lower limit) to 3.8 GHz (upper limit), it covers the wireless body area network (WBAN) and the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) frequency bands. It's designed on an epoxy FR-4 substrate with a dielectric constant (&) of 4.4 and a thickness of 1.6 mm, the antenna resonates specifically at 2.4 GHz. This resonating frequency boasts an impressive impedance bandwidth of 2.3 GHz (equivalent to 86.80%), while maintaining a compact size of 0.42λ x 0.40λ mm². Notably, the antenna exhibits remarkable attributes such as high directivity, favorable cross-polarization levels, and efficiency at its resonating frequency. These features position it as a strong candidate for employment in both WBAN and ISM band Internet of Things (IoT) applications. This can be used in Mobile phones, Bluetooth devices, Wi-Fi Devices, wireless communication and Wearable applications. The antenna's small size, cost- effectiveness, omnidirectional radiation pattern, and reliable far-field characteristics make it a promising choice for wearable applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wearable technologies are increasingly popular, prompting a rise in wearable antenna usage, especially in wireless body area networks (WBAN). However, constructing antennas for wearable is challenging due to the presence of the human body. Factors such as flexibility, precision, and size are crucial considerations. Researchers are actively working on these challenges and have made significant progress in the field. This work presents a compact wideband (WB), low profile and low-cost antenna, which is suitable for wearable biomedical telemetry applications. The antenna is designed using FR4_epoxy dielectric material having dimensions of 0.44λ0 × 0.44λο × 0.028λ0 mm³. Two rectangular slots are engraved on the patch to improve the impedance bandwidth and gain. The proposed slotted wearable antenna achieved an impedance bandwidth of 2.26 GHz (3.58-5.84 GHz) with a center frequency at 5.3 GHz and high gain of 5.9 dBi. This antenna presents a solution for wearable biomedical telemetry, offering compact size, high performance, and adaptability to various conditions. The simulation results of return loss, voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR,), impedance matching, gain and radiation pattern of the proposed antenna are obtained through Ansys 2021 R2 high frequency structure simulator(HFSS) software. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The necessity for an advanced health monitoring system within healthcare systems has instigated the evolution of Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs). It serves as a tool predominantly employed in diagnosing and addressing patient's health concerns through treatments. Securing highly confidential and sensitive patient data collected through sensors within WBANs is crucial, necessitating robust measures to prevent various forms of adversarial attacks and unauthorized access, mainly due to its critical role in healthcare applications. Hence, signcryption security is essential for ensuring the protection of medical information within WBANs. This research presents a novel perspective apart from existing investigations on signcryption, addressing a gap in the literature. The study thoroughly analyzes signcryption-based WBAN protocols to contribute valuable insights to the field. Recent signcryption literature has been assessedorganization, equipped with the master key to analyze WBAN architecture, security requirements, and critical challenges within WBANs to fulfill the outlined objectives. This review aims to perform a comparative analysis of existing signcryption security solutions and analyze the existing proposed security solutions for WBANs. The techniques were compared with the existing signcryption methods, aiming to comprehend the security issues and their underlying motives. Furthermore, it highlights the research challenges encountered in the security dimensions of signcryption in WBAN, establishing the foundation for future avenues of investigation in this rapidly developing sector of health monitoring technology. The survey aims to serve as a benchmark for researchers and application developers, offering reference points for further exploration in the field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a high‐gain wearable circularly polarized bow‐tie antenna (WCPBTA) with metamaterial unit‐cells and 5 pins (5Ps) technique for telemedicine applications such as telemonitoring the elderly or the patients especially for emergency conditions of contagious diseases. The frequency range of the proposed antenna is 5.725–5.850 GHz, which belongs to the unlicensed‐national information infrastructure (U‐NII‐3) for the industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) sub‐channels. A light‐weight and flexible felt with dielectric constant εr = 3, thickness 1.27 mm, and tan (δ) = 0.0095 is used as the substrate for patient comfort and wearability. The overall dimensions of the proposed antenna are 64 × 62 × 1.27 mm3 or 0.102 λg3 at 5.8 GHz. The maximum simulated gain at 5.8 GHz is 8.25 dB, which is more than 4 dB compared to that of the original bow‐tie antenna. Besides, the axial ratio (AR) and the specific absorption rate (SAR) are also analyzed, which meet the perfect requirement for medical applications. The fabricated prototype of the antenna shows good compatibility between simulation and measurement results. These characteristics make the proposed WCPBTA a good choice for wireless body area networks (WBANs) in telemonitoring applications especially with the aim of preventing the spread of contagious diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we address the challenges of energy and throughput management in a Wireless Body Area Network (WBAN) with a focus on a heart rate sensor. Our approach utilizes the sleep and wake-up method to minimize sensor energy consumption while harnessing Radio Frequency (RF) waves and human activities (running, walking, and relaxing) as Energy Harvesting (EH) sources to supplement battery power. Bluetooth Low Energy 5 (BLE5) technology is employed for wireless information and energy transfer. Our goal is to strike a balance between throughput and battery residual energy. The advantages of using Q-learning for action selection in comparison to Random Action (RA) selection are demonstrated through simulations. The results reveal that the reward function in Q-learning, incorporating a balancing parameter, effectively achieves a compromise between throughput and battery residual energy. Additionally, our Q-learning method improves system throughput by 43% compared to RA selection. In addition, we compare the performance of the Q-learning and State- Action- RewardState- Action (SARSA) algorithms using the same reward function to evaluate their respective abilities in managing system throughput and battery residual energy. These findings have significant implications for developing energy-efficient WBANs, enabling prolonged operation and reliable data transmission. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) are pivotal in health care and wearable technologies, enabling seamless communication between miniature sensors and devices on or within the human body. These biosensors capture critical physiological parameters, ranging from body temperature and blood oxygen levels to real-time electrocardiogram readings. However, WBANs face significant challenges during and after deployment, including energy conservation, security, reliability, and failure vulnerability. Sensor nodes, which are often battery-operated, expend considerable energy during sensing and transmission due to inherent spatiotemporal patterns in biomedical data streams. This paper provides a comprehensive survey of data-driven approaches that address these challenges, focusing on device placement and routing, sampling rate calibration, and the application of machine learning (ML) and statistical learning techniques to enhance network performance. Additionally, we validate three existing models (statistical, ML, and coding-based models) using two real datasets, namely the MIMIC clinical database and biomarkers collected from six subjects with a prototype biosensing device developed by our team. Our findings offer insights into strategies for optimizing energy efficiency while ensuring security and reliability in WBANs. We conclude by outlining future directions to leverage approaches to meet the evolving demands of healthcare applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, a wearable full-textile spoof surface plasmon polariton transmission line (SSPP TL) with improved communication data security has been presented. Equivalent circuit analyses reveal that the new proposed SSPP TL based on the patch-loading technique achieves flexible dispersion control by changing the patch dimension. As compared to conventional SSPP TL with periodical corrugations, the proposed wearable SSPP TL has similar transmission performance, but with a 43% reduction in transversal width. Such results are beneficial to the size reduction of the wearable wireless body area network (WBAN) system. Besides, the proposed SSPP TL achieves stricter field confinement, which helps to improve communication data security. The proposed wearable SSPP TL is pattered by hand-cutting the conductive E-textile. The feasibility of the wearable SSPP TL has been verified through the S-parameter simulation, specific absorption rate (SAR) simulation, the measurement in the free space, and measurements on different mounting positions of the human body. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of body area network technology and brain neuroscience, the study of electroencephalogram signals has been increasingly emphasized by academics. However, more research on electrocorticography (ECoG) still needs to be carried out. In this study, the communication performance of ECoG signal transmission via the human body and the influence of port structure on their transmission are thoroughly investigated. First, we use the finite difference time domain method to model the head system accurately in conjunction with the electromagnetic properties of human tissues, which reveals the multipath propagation phenomenon in communication. Second, based on our previous research results, we compare the system bit error rate (BER) under phase shift keying (PSK) and frequency shift keying (FSK) modulation modes and further explore the link budget of the system under these two modulation modes. Finally, we analyze the potential impact of the transceiver structural parameters on the signal transmission characteristics. The results show that the power delay in the communication link exhibits a second-order exponential decay function distribution and that the inter-path delay and delay spread follow a Weibull distribution. Under certain BER conditions, PSK reduces the signal-to-noise requirement by 3.2 dB compared to FSK modulation, which is more suitable for head-end channel transmission. In addition, variations in the size and angle of the electrode disks at the transmitter and receiver have little effect on the transmission results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The wireless body area network (WBAN) has emerged as a promising networking paradigm thanks to embedded systems, integrated circuit technologies, and wireless communications advancements. WBAN has the ability to send real-time biomedical data to remote medical personnel for clinical diagnostics through intelligent medical sensors in or around the patient's body. Moreover, WBANs have played an increasingly important role in modern medical systems over the past decade as part of the Internet of Things (IoT). In addition to their conveniences, WBANs present us with the data confidentiality challenge and protecting patient's privacy. The system requires a robust security mechanism to protect against threats because of the massive production of delay-sensitive data. This article presents a quantum key distribution (QKD) protocol-based authentication scheme for secure communication within WBAN infrastructure to prevent attacks and provide services free of security risks. To the best of our knowledge, we proposed a privacy preserving quantum authentication scheme for secure data sharing in WBANs to enhance security by encrypting medical data and safeguarding patients identities. Simulations conducted using Mathematica evaluate the proposed quantum authentication protocol both theoretically and practically, showing strong encryption performance against recent schemes. Results include computational cost of 6.832 ms, communication costs of 588 bits, and energy consumption of 432.98 μ J indicating the proposed quantum authentication protocol model exhibits superior reliability, feasibility, and efficiency in safeguarding WBAN data during transmission and storage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Wireless body area network (WBAN) is a potential low‐cost technology for privacy‐sensitive telemedicine and e‐health monitoring and services. However, it faces limited protocol and physical resource support challenges, which can result in packet transfer difficulties. In particular, WBAN requires an emergency‐aware technology that ensures a promising quality of service (QoS). One significant issue affecting QoS and energy efficiency in WBAN is congestion. Effective congestion control techniques are essential for achieving proper load balancing. To address these challenges, we propose a congestion severity aware rate control (CSRR) algorithm that enhances packet transmission rate by reducing packet losses and retransmissions. The CSRR algorithm incorporates a fuzzy controller to predict congestion rates based on runtime metrics. To regulate congestion window growth in different algorithm phases, we introduce sequences such as the Fibonacci retracement sequence, knight's move sequence, and the binary logarithm of the Nth primorial sequence to regulate congestion window growth in the different phases of the proposed algorithm. We mathematically analyze the proposed CSRR algorithm using a Markov model. The simulation results demonstrate the superiority of our algorithm compared to existing approaches. Specifically, our algorithm achieves significant optimizations in terms of throughput (52.92%), packet loss (38.11%), delay (37.23%), and remaining energy (36.86%) when compared to existing algorithms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Wireless body area networks (WBANs) are essential for medical applications, especially in remote health monitoring, as they transmit crucial and time‐sensitive data collected by nodes positioned around or within the body. However, the coexistence of WBANs with wireless channels can degrade performance due to interference. This study introduces OIM‐DLCAM, an optimal interference mitigation scheme for WBANs, which utilizes a deep learning‐based channel access method. OIM‐DLCAM addresses interference through the multiobjective Hungarian optimization (MOHO) algorithm, considering design constraints such as node transmission power, packet delivery ratio, and interference range. Additionally, it employs a deep probabilistic neural network‐based channel access method (DPNN‐CAM) to effectively mitigate interference by making decisions regarding contention window size, frame length, and buffer size. The proposed OIM‐DLCAM scheme ensures fairness between users while enhancing system performance. Simulation results from both static and dynamic sensor node scenarios demonstrate its effectiveness under various conditions, showcasing its potential to improve WBAN performance in medical applications. The simulations reveal that OIM‐DLCAM outperforms existing state‐of‐the‐art schemes across various scenarios, with efficiency gains of up to 86.187%, 72.452%, and 47.954% for WBAN node density, mobility, and packet arrival rate, respectively. Moreover, it significantly reduces the average end‐to‐end delay and packet drop rate while improving throughput and packet delivery ratio compared with existing schemes. Additionally, comparisons with industry standards, such as the IEEE 802.15.4e norm, validate the suitability of OIM‐DLCAM for cofounded WBANs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) play a crucial role in healthcare and various other domains by enabling continuous monitoring of vital signs and activities. However, challenges such as low-powered sensors, unstable links, and routing issues hinder their efficiency and reliability. In this paper, we propose the Thermal Aware High Throughput (TAHT) routing protocol to address these challenges. TAHT utilizes a multi-hop topology and prioritizes stable links for efficient routing, considering parameters like energy, link quality, and temperature. Through experimental evaluation, TAHT demonstrates a 10% to 20% improvement in throughput, a 15% reduction in temperature overheads, and enhanced overall performance compared to benchmark protocols. By effectively managing energy consumption, minimizing duplicate data transmissions, and optimizing routing paths, TAHT offers a novel solution to improve the reliability and sustainability of WBANs, thus advancing the field beyond previous efforts in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) are mostly used in the healthcare industry. They represent a portable, inexpensive network that exhibition adaptability. The data developed using WBAN devices is vulnerable to transmission-related internal and external attacks; nevertheless, this vulnerability arises due to resource restrictions; by employing data aggregation technologies to conduct statistical analyses of medical data while protecting patient privacy, medical professionals can enhance the precision of diagnoses and assist medical insurance firms in selecting optimal plans for their clients. Maintaining the confidentiality and integrity of sensitive health information becomes more stimulating at the stages of aggregation and transmission due to security issues. This study proposes a novel method, Twofish Symmetric Key Generation (TFSKG), combined into a Secure Data Aggregation (SDA) and transmission system intended for WBANs. The Twofish technique is animatedly employed to make the secure symmetric keys chosen for its robust encryption capabilities. These keys are used to encrypt and decrypt aggregated health data through transmission. The proposed TFSKG-SDA method implements effective algorithms for aggregating data to safeguard end-to-end privacy and preserve data accuracy while reducing bandwidth consumption. Thus, for improved performance, an innovative genetic algorithm for data security is presented in this study. This paper introduces TFSKG-SDA, a system that, by employing rigorous simulation testing, enhances security protocols, resistance against recognized threats, and data transmission efficacy in the context of resource-constrained WBANs. We assess the encryption strength, computational cost, and communication efficiency of the TFSKG-SDA method to prove its significance to real-world healthcare applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The propagation study of electromagnetic (EM) waves within a human body is becoming essential due to the growing demand for the design and development of implantable sensing nodes in a body area network (BAN). Many researchers are interested in contributing to the development of propagation models in the ultra-wideband (UWB), i.e., 3.1 to 10.6 GHz, for biomedical applications, as well as the license-free Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) band. This kind of propagation model is essential in order to design and develop UWB transceivers for in-body, on-body, and off-body communications. This paper looks at the possibility of using a stepped slot patch antenna with a copper ground plane as either an off-body or on-body antenna by comparing measurements taken on a liquid human phantom. In addition, we use the empirical data to propose a statistical model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this work a Compact Circular patch-oriented bio medical antenna is proposed for low SAR applications. The proposed antenna covers bands of both 2.4 GHz and 5. 8 GHz.The structural orientation and star shaped slot in the circular patch gives the specified targeted bands. A flexible polyamide substrate with a dielectric constant between 2.9–3.3 and a loss tangent of 0.008 is used in the design of antenna. Additionally, the variations in radiation characteristics of proposed antenna at different bending conditions are examined. The obtained frequency ranges between 2.3–3.5 GHZ and between 5.1–6.8 GHz, with fractional bandwidths of 41% and 28% respectively. A suitable dipole and Omnidirectional patterns have been observed for proposed modal. The observed antenna has a peak gain of 2.5 dBi at lower frequency resonance and 4.9 dBi at higher frequency resonance. Validation of the antenna is structured out by implementing nearby conditions of human body and observed its variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biomedical applications like body area networks (BAN) necessitate the construction of power optimized SRAMs to enhance the batteries life at BAN nodes. In this work, we have designed a one-sided near-threshold 9TSRAM for low-power portable biomedical applications. The proposed near threshold 9T SRAM (PNT9T SRAM) employs a cross-connected Schmitt trigger (ST) inverter and normal inverter in its cell core. A separate path for reading is also employed to eliminate the reading disturbance. The write disturbance is removed in the PNT9T SRAM by removing the trail from VDD and ground. The write ability is improved with the use of a feedback-cutting approach. The leakage power dissipation of the memory is mitigated by using a tail transistor, virtual ground (VGND). To evaluate the performance, the PNT9T SRAM is compared with conventional 6T (C6T), ST11T, ST9T, TG9T, SBL9T, and SE9T SRAM cells using FinFET 18nm technology at 0.6V power supply. The PNT9T SRAM mitigates the read power, write power, and leakage power by 51.10%, 50.57%, and 78.97%. Furthermore, the read and write static noise margins were improved by 54% and 39.5%, respectively, compared to C6T SRAM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, wireless body area network (WBAN) becomes a hot research topic in the advanced healthcare system. The WBAN plays a vital role in monitoring the physiological parameters of the human body with sensors. The sensors are small in size, and it has a small-sized battery with limited life. Hence, the energy is limited in the multi-hop routing process. The patient data is collected by the sensor, and the data are transmitted with high energy consumption. It causes failure in the data transmission path. To avoid this, the data transmission process should be optimized. This paper presents an advanced authentication and energy-efficient routing protocol (AAERP) for optimal routing paths in WBAN. Patients' data are aggregated from the WBAN through the IoMT devices in the initial stage. To secure the patient's private data, a hybrid mechanism of the elliptic curve cryptosystem (ECC) and Paillier cryptosystem is proposed for the data encryption process. Data security is improved by authenticating the data before transmission using an encryption algorithm. Before the routing process, the data encryption approach converts the original plain text data into ciphertext data. This encryption approach assists in avoiding intrusions in the network system. The encrypted data are optimally routed with the help of the teamwork optimization algorithm (TOA) approach. The optimal path selection using this optimization technique improves the effectiveness and robustness of the system. The experimental setup is performed by using Python software. The efficacy of the proposed model is evaluated by solving parameters like network lifetime, network throughput, residual energy, success rate, number of packets received, number of packets sent, and number of packets dropped. The performance of the proposed model is measured by comparing the obtained results with several existing models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study introduces a compact wearable metasurface transmission line operating at 2.45 GHz, utilizing spoof surface plasmon polariton (SSPP). The design incorporates a periodic arrangement of hook unit cells and a tapering structure to enhance coupling efficiency between the microstrip feed line and the metasurface transmission line. For its implementation, a dielectric substrate composed entirely of cotton denim jeans is employed, along with e-textile conductive traces and a ground plane. Electromagnetic wave propagation along the transmission line is simulated, and the primary wave mode and associated propagation characteristics are analyzed. Both simulation and measurement results confirm the successful performance of the metasurface transmission line for on-body signal transmissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary: Wireless body area networks (WBANs) are becoming widely considered in remote healthcare monitoring applications. However, WBAN nodes have limited resources; therefore, effective and reliable routing protocols are pivotal research challenges. Furthermore, balancing the traffic load among sensor nodes is also highly required to increase network stability. In recent years, many interesting routing solutions have been proposed for WBANs; however, the significant feature in terms of stability and energy in these solutions has not been sufficiently addressed. Therefore, in this context, the Hot‐Sspot Aaware Multicost‐based Energy‐efficient Routing (H‐SAMER) protocol is proposed in this paper. The suggested protocol used multieffective cost function for next‐hop node selection based on the data type, where the patient's data are categorized into three classes: normal data, on‐demand data, and emergency data. Furthermore, the H‐SAMER protocol adds awareness to the transmission of control packets by adding the cost value to the RREQ packets. Thus, the simulation scenario shows that the H‐SAMER saves energy 8.57%, 88%, 98%, 97%, and 100% greater than E‐HARP, EH‐RCP, CO‐LAEEBA, EECBSR, and ELR‐W, respectively. Moreover, the first node death of the proposed H‐SAMER is delayed to round number 7500, which proves H‐SAMER to be a stable and reliable effective solution for WBANs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Sensor‐enabled systems have been used successfully in agricultural, healthcare, commercial, and military application domains. Recently, there has been significant interest in the intelligent applications of sensor‐enabled technologies, particularly in the domains of smart grid, Internet of Vehicles (IoV), body area networks, and the Internet of Things (IoT). In recent research, various protocols and algorithm are developed for effective energy‐efficient routing and energy balancing. These existing models have some issues like high energy consumption and minimum network life time. In order to overcome these existing issues, a novel cluster head selection and routing mechanism in a wireless sensor network (WSN) environment is proposed. The clustering process has been formed by an enhanced Taylor kernel fuzzy C‐means algorithm (TKFC‐means). The cluster head in the group of sensor nodes has been identified based on energy and distance calculation. Finally, the routing has been performed by a novel energy‐efficient Chebyshev fire hawks optimization‐based routing protocol to route data to the edge server, which helps to balance the energy effectively. This protocol takes into account various factors, including distance, cost, residual energy, load, temperature, latency, and overall energy. The proposed model can obtain a throughput value of 82 Mbps for the sensor nodes at 500 and an end‐to‐end delay of 3.6 at 500 sensor nodes. The packet delivery ratio and loss ratio attain 96.4% and 2.7%, respectively, with 500 sensor nodes in the proposed approach. The proposed method consumes 0.45 mJ of energy with 500 nodes. From this analysis, the proposed model can obtain better results than the existing compared models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advancement of wireless communication technology demands antennas that can achieve significant gain while functioning across diverse frequency ranges. Numerous studies have aimed to enhance the gain and radiation properties of such antennas. However, when these antennas operate near the human body, their performance regarding return loss, gain, radiation pattern, and specific absorption rate (SAR) are influenced by the interaction and absorption of human tissue. To enhance overall antenna performance, artificial magnetic conductor (AMC) surfaces have been introduced. Numerous studies have been conducted to improve antenna performance through the use of AMC surfaces. This paper proposes a coplanar waveguide (CPW)-fed wearable antenna integrated with an AMC array. The integrated antenna is expected to operate at both 2.45 GHz and 5.5 GHz, making it suitable for applications in wireless local area networks (WLAN) and wireless body area networks (WBAN). The study focuses on the benefits of the integrated antenna, highlighting advantages such as improved gain and lowered SAR in comparison to the antenna alone. These improvements are validated through both simulated and measured outcomes. This antenna, featuring a simple feed structure, low cost, and ease of fabrication, is a promising option for wearable medical applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Microwave (MW) sensing is regarded as a promising technique for various medical monitoring and diagnostic applications due to its numerous advantages and the potential to be developed into a portable device for use outside hospital settings. The detection of skull fractures and the monitoring of their healing process would greatly benefit from a rapidly and frequently usable application that can be employed outside the hospital. This paper presents a simulation- and experiment-based study on skull fracture detection with the MW technique using realistic models for the first time. It also presents assessments on the most promising frequency ranges for skull fracture detection within the Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) and ultrawideband (UWB) ranges. Evaluations are carried out with electromagnetic simulations using different head tissue layer models corresponding to different locations in the human head, as well as an anatomically realistic human head simulation model. The measurements are conducted with a real human skull combined with tissue phantoms developed in our laboratory. The comprehensive evaluations show that fractures cause clear differences in antenna and channel parameters (S11 and S21). The difference in S11 is 0.1–20 dB and in S21 is 0.1–30 dB, depending on the fracture width and location. Skull fractures with a less than 1 mm width can be detected with microwaves at different fracture locations. The detectability is frequency dependent. Power flow representations illustrate how fractures impact on the signal propagation at different frequencies. MW-based detection of skull fractures provides the possibility to (1) detect fractures using a safe and low-cost portable device, (2) monitor the healing-process of fractures, and (3) bring essential information for emerging portable MW-based diagnostic applications that can detect, e.g., strokes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research on wireless body area networks (WBAN), also known as wireless body sensor networks (WBSN), has been increasingly important in medical applications recently and is now crucial for patient monitoring. To create a dependable body area network (BAN) system, several factors need to be considered at both the software and hardware levels. One such factor is the designing and implementation of routing protocols in the network layers. Protocols for routing can detect and manage the routing paths in a network to facilitate efficient data transmission between nodes. Therefore, the routing protocol is crucial in wireless sensor networks (WSN) to provide dependable communication among the sensor nodes. Different clustering methods can be used in WBAN systems. However, these techniques often produce many cluster heads (CHs), which leads to higher energy consumption. Increased consumption of energy reduces the lifespan of WBANs and raises costs of monitoring. This research proposes a recent metaheuristic algorithm to select the optimal clusters to provide an energy-effective protocol for healthcare monitoring. This research aims to minimize the energy utilization of WBANs by choosing the most suitable CHs based on the BWO. The proposed BWO-based routing protocol demonstrates superior performance in WBANs based on energy consumption, packet loss, packet delivery ratio, network lifetime, end-to-end delay, and throughput. It optimizes energy consumption by effectively selecting CHs and routing paths, leading to balanced energy usage and prolonged network operation. The BWO model significantly reduces end-to-end delay by ensuring data packets follow the shortest and least congested routes, which is significant for real-time health monitoring. It achieves a high packet delivery ratio, typically between 95% and 98%, indicating reliable data transmission, while maintaining a low packet loss rate, generally between 1% and 5%. Additionally, the BWO-based routing protocol extends network lifetime by preventing early node depletion and enhances network throughput by reducing congestion and packet collisions, thereby supporting continuous and robust health data monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The development of computer technology and wireless communication has introduced the wireless body area network (WBAN) to the world. In WBAN, the patient's vital signs are monitored by small sensors embedded in the body. Sensor nodes work with a limited energy source, so energy consumption is a major issue in these networks. The increase in temperature caused by data transmissions can cause serious damage to body tissue. This paper proposes an Energy-Temperature Aware Routing (ETAR) protocol to solve this problem. In ETAR, routing is done directly and multi-hop using relay nodes. Multi-hop data forwarding plays a significant role in reducing energy consumption. In the proposed method, relay nodes are selected using a fuzzy inference system. Energy, temperature, and distance parameters are defined as the inputs of the fuzzy system. Therefore, in each round, a node with more remaining energy, lower temperature, and less distance from its neighbors is selected as the relay node. The proposed protocol reduces the adverse effects of temperature on the body by setting temperature limits for sensors. The performance of ETAR was evaluated for homogeneous and heterogeneous networks. In homogenous network, this protocol improves energy consumption by 44% and 55% compared to THE and EEMR. Network lifetime is enhanced by 46% and 55% compared to THE and EEMR. The throughput is improved by 40% compared to THE and 34% compared to EEMR, respectively. In a heterogeneous network, this protocol improves energy consumption by 47% and 52% compared to THE and EEMR. Network lifetime is enhanced by 62% and 65% compared to THE and EEMR, respectively. The throughput is improved by 100% compared to THE and 97% compared to EEMR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing need for remote healthcare monitoring and personalized treatment has driven the evolution of Wireless Body Area Networks (WBAN). This paper presents a new multiband antenna design for WBAN, featuring a dual wideband antenna that operates from 2.22 to 3.52 GHz and 4.98–11.13 GHz. The design also includes an integrated 4 × 4 artificial magnetic conductor (AMC) surface and a 4 × 3 frequency selective surface (FSS) superstrate layer that works together to reduce back radiation and improve radiation performance. The AMC unit cell produces a quintuple zero-degree reflection phase response at 2.5 GHz, 4.8 GHz, 6.5 GHz, 9.1 GHz, and 11 GHz, and the FSS superstrate generates a multiband response of the transmission coefficient at 3.24 GHz, 6.68 GHz, and 9.25 GHz, behaving as a Double Negative material at their corresponding resonant frequency. The integrated antenna design measures 0.425λ0 × 0.425λ0 × 0.17λ0 (λ0 at 2.45 GHz) and covers the most common wireless frequency bands, with an impedance bandwidth of 23.74% (2.19–2.78 GHz), 1.739% (3.99–4.06 GHz), and 72.46% (5.13–10.96 GHz). Furthermore, the integrated antenna showcases a peak gain of 11.98dBi at 7.5 GHz, a notable Front-to-Back Ratio of 25.15 dB at 8.2 GHz, and a minimal specific absorption rate (SAR) of 0.0142 W/kg at 9 GHz. These accomplishments resulted in a considerable 99.45% reduction in the overall average SAR values and achieved an 83% radiation efficiency. The effectiveness of the proposed multiband antenna design was evaluated by fabricating and testing an experimental prototype using a Vector Network Analyzer and Anechoic Chamber. Overall, the integrated AMC and FSS structures enable multiband resonance and improved radiation performance, making the presented antenna design a promising solution for future WBAN applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we aimed to develop a trusted secured routing Ad-hoc ondemand distance vector (AODV) protocol to fight against blackhole attacks within the wireless body area network (WBAN). The trusted secure routing protocol incorporates a routing strategy based on trust value to detect malicious nodes based on their trust value, a routing technique based on node residual energy to select the node with the highest residual energy during the communication process, and a hybrid cryptography algorithm that merges the Affine cipher with the modified RSA cipher algorithm to secure communication against malevolent biomedical sensor attacks. Simulation outcomes demonstrate that the suggested protocol outperforms the traditional AODV routing protocol in all evaluation metrics, including data rate, energy consumption, and packet delivery ratio. Its main strength is that it considers several factors, like illegitimate medical sensor detection, efficient network energy use, and secure data transmission, unlike similar secured routing protocols. Furthermore, the hybrid cipher algorithm improves the effectiveness and increases the security level of sensitive data compared to traditional cipher algorithms such as the Affine cipher and the RSA cipher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A framework of a metasurface (MTS) – based wideband circularly polarized (CP) reconfigurable antenna for fifth generation (5G) wireless systems operating in the sub-6 GHz mid-frequency range is presented in this article. The proposed structure contains a simple patch antenna, which serves as the primary source, a shorting pin, two ring slots, and a metasurface superstrate. The shorting pin and two ring slots produce perturbation resulting in circular polarization with a narrow axial ratio (AR) bandwidth. A metasurface (MTS) superstrate composed of 4 × 4 rectangular patches stacked over the primary source antenna generates additional resonances that significantly improve the −10 dB impedance and 3 dB axial ratio (AR) bandwidth. Two PIN diodes are employed to alter the circular polarization between left-hand circular polarization (LHCP) and right-hand circular polarization (RHCP). The prototype is made using an FR-4 epoxy substrate and has an overall size of 50 mm × 35 mm × 4.2 mm. The antenna has a −10 dB bandwidth of 44 % (4.0–6.2) and a 3 dB axial ratio bandwidth of 28 % (4.2–5.6). It also has a 3 dB beam width of 74° and 85° in the E and H planes, a gain of 7.1 dBi, cross-polar isolation of more than 15 dB, and a unidirectional radiation pattern. The simulated and measured results confirm that the implemented antenna is promising for sub-6 GHz 5G communication systems, particularly cognitive radio, wireless body area networks (WBAN), and satellite communication systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A metasurface consisting of a 2D periodic square lattice of metallic square ring resonators is considered for supporting spoof surface plasmon polariton (SSPP) modes. First, SSPP modes are highlighted by simulated dispersion curves. The dispersion curves are analyzed by considering hybridization of modes in either a patch or an aperture array with frequency shifts. Hybridization of modes is also supported by means of surface current and electric field mappings showing consistent symmetric and anti-symmetric fields. Second, it is shown that a dipole antenna located near the metasurface is able to generate SSPP modes. The transmission spectra between two antennas located at each extremity of the metasurface show transmission enhancements compared with propagation in free space. The transmission enhancements are shown for different locations of the antennas either facing each other or positioned in diagonal. Finally, the transmission enhancement is connected to SSPP modes by comparing the transmission spectra and the measured dispersion curves with each other. Specifically, two transmission windows measured for an embroidered metasurface are related to the cutoff frequency of the two SSPP modes supported by the metasurface as evidenced by the measured dispersion curves. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract In this paper we consider a scenario where there are two wireless body area networks (WBANs) interfere with each other from a game theoretic perspective. In particular, we envision two WBANs playing a potential game to enhance their performance by decreasing interference to each other. Decreasing interference extends the sensors' batteries life time and reduces the number of re‐transmissions. We derive the required conditions for the game to be a potential game and its associated the Nash equilibrium (NE). Specifically, we formulate a game where each WBAN has three strategies. Depending on the payoff of each strategy, the game can be designed to achieve a desired NE. Furthermore, we employ a learning algorithm to achieve that NE. In particular, we employ the Fictitious play (FP) learning algorithm as a distributed algorithm that WBANs can use to approach the NE. The simulation results show that the NE is mainly a function of the power cost parameter and a reliability factor that we set depending on each WBAN setting (patient). However, the power cost factor is more dominant than the reliability factor according to the linear cost function formulation that we use throughout this work.

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For remote health monitoring, activity tracking, and other applications in healthcare such as sports, Wireless Body Area Networks (WBANs) have become a feasible technology. However, the limited resources and dynamic nature of WBANs pose significant challenges to designing efficient and reliable routing protocols. To address these challenges, the proposed work suggests a thermal-aware, energy-efficient, and congestion-aware routing protocol (TECRP) for WBAN. TECRP focuses on improving transmission in both inter-WBAN and intra-WBAN scenarios. It addresses three key Quality of Service (QoS) parameters: energy efficiency, node temperature, and congestion, aiming to enhance overall WBAN communication efficiency. To achieve all these parameters, the algorithm is considered a multi-objective problem. The analysis shows that the temperature rises and delay increases with the number of data transmission, but the multi-objective approach helps to mitigate such effects. The result analysis shows that the path loss values fluctuate with increasing data transmission and network traffic. But the temperature rise increases with more data transmission and larger packets. On the other hand, the Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR) decreases with an increase in data transmission and with larger packet sizes. This shows that with higher congestion ratios, a higher likelihood of packet loss is seen. But in overall performance, the proposed TECRP shows better efficiency and congestion management as compared to other existing state-of-art-models and achieves high PDR, and minimizes packet loss. The proposed approach shows 0.42% improvement in energy efficiency as compared to existing approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sixteen‐port circularly polarized (CP) ultrawideband (UWB) multiple‐input−multiple‐output (MIMO) belt antenna is designed and developed for wireless body area network (WBAN) applications. The proposed antenna comprises sixteen modified octagon‐like ring antenna elements with a common ground. These antenna elements are designed on leather material and can be worn as a belt. Each antenna element contains a microstrip line feed and a modified octagon‐like open‐ended ring radiator to generate circular polarization. The belt antenna provides an impedance bandwidth (S11 ≤ −10 dB) of 3.08–11 GHz (112.5%) and a 3 dB axial ratio bandwidth (ARBW) of 4.7–7.07 GHz (40.27%). The envelope correlation coefficient (ECC) amongst the resonating elements is <0.003. Additionally, the bending analysis and specific absorption rate (SAR) of the presented antenna are examined. The overall size of the belt antenna is 30 mm × 574 mm × 1 mm. The designed belt antenna is suitable for WBAN applications due to its leather material, good on‐body performance, and nearly identical simulated and experimental results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the design and analysis of a metamaterial-based compact dual-band antenna for WBAN applications. The antenna is designed and fabricated on a 0.254 mm thick semi-flexible substrate, RT/Duroid® 5880, with a relative permittivity of 2.2 and a loss tangent of 0.0009. The total dimensions of the antenna are 0.26λo×0.19λo×0.002λo, where λo corresponds to the free space wavelength at 2.45 GHz. To enhance overall performance and isolate the antenna from adverse effects of the human body, it is backed by a 2×2 artificial magnetic conductor (AMC) plane. The total volume of the AMC integrated design is 0.55λo×0.55λo×0.002λo. The paper investigates the antenna's performance both with and without AMC integration, considering on- and off-body states, as well as various bending conditions in both E and H-planes. Results indicate that the AMC-integrated antenna gives improved measured gains of 6.61 dBi and 8.02 dBi, with bandwidths of 10.12% and 7.43% at 2.45 GHz and 5.80 GHz, respectively. Furthermore, the AMC integrated antenna reduces the specific absorption rate (SAR) to (>96%) and (>93%) at 2.45 GHz and 5.80 GHz, meeting FCC requirements for low SAR at both frequencies when placed in proximity to the human body. CST Microwave Studio (MWS) and Ansys High-Frequency Structure Simulation (HFSS), both full-wave simulation tools, are utilized to evaluate the antenna's performance and to characterize the AMC unit cell. The simulated and tested results are in mutual agreement. Due to its low profile, high gain, adequate bandwidth, low SAR values, and compact size, the AMC integrated antenna is considered suitable for WBAN applications. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]