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[Abridged] We present the apparent stellar angular momentum of 300 galaxies across the Hubble sequence, using integral-field spectroscopic data from the CALIFA survey. Adopting the same $\lambda_\mathrm{R}$ parameter previously used to distinguish between slow and fast rotating early-type (elliptical and lenticular) galaxies, we show that spiral galaxies as expected are almost all fast rotators. Given the extent of our data, we provide relations for $\lambda_\mathrm{R}$ measured in different apertures, including conversions to long-slit 1D apertures. Our sample displays a wide range of $\lambda_\mathrm{Re}$ values, consistent with previous IFS studies. The fastest rotators are dominated by relatively massive and highly star-forming Sb galaxies, which preferentially reside in the main star-forming sequence. These galaxies reach $\lambda_\mathrm{Re}$ values of $\sim$0.85, are the largest galaxies at a given mass, and display some of the strongest stellar population gradients. Compared to the population of S0 galaxies, our findings suggest that fading may not be the dominant mechanism transforming spirals into lenticulars. Interestingly, we find that $\lambda_\mathrm{Re}$ decreases for late-type Sc and Sd spiral galaxies, with values than in occasions puts them in the slow-rotator regime. While for some of them this can be explained by their irregular morphologies and/or face-on configurations, others are edge-on systems with no signs of significant dust obscuration. The latter are typically at the low-mass end, but this does not explain their location in the classical ($V/\sigma$,$\varepsilon$) and ($\lambda_\mathrm{Re}$,$\varepsilon$) diagrams. Our initial investigations, based on dynamical models, suggest that these are dynamically hot disks, probably influenced by the observed important fraction of dark matter within R$_\mathrm{e}$., Comment: 17 pages, 7 figures, A&A accepted

We present the stellar kinematic maps of a large sample of galaxies from the integral-field spectroscopic survey CALIFA. The sample comprises 300 galaxies displaying a wide range of morphologies across the Hubble sequence, from ellipticals to late-type spirals. This dataset allows us to homogeneously extract stellar kinematics up to several effective radii. In this paper, we describe the level of completeness of this subset of galaxies with respect to the full CALIFA sample, as well as the virtues and limitations of the kinematic extraction compared to other well-known integral-field surveys. In addition, we provide averaged integrated velocity dispersion radial profiles for different galaxy types, which are particularly useful to apply aperture corrections for single aperture measurements or poorly resolved stellar kinematics of high-redshift sources. The work presented in this paper sets the basis for the study of more general properties of galaxies that will be explored in subsequent papers of the survey., Comment: 52 pages, 44 figures, A&A accepted. FITS tables with the stellar kinematic results are available at: http://www.caha.es/CALIFA/public_html/?q=content/science-dataproducts A full-resolution version of the manuscript is also available on the same webpage

In this letter we describe how we use stellar dynamics information to constrain the shape of the stellar IMF in a sample of 27 early-type galaxies from the CALIFA survey. We obtain dynamical and stellar mass-to-light ratios, $\Upsilon_\mathrm{dyn}$ and $\Upsilon_{\ast}$, over a homogenous aperture of 0.5~$R_{e}$. We use the constraint $\Upsilon_\mathrm{dyn} \ge \Upsilon_{\ast}$ to test two IMF shapes within the framework of the extended MILES stellar population models. We rule out a single power law IMF shape for 75% of the galaxies in our sample. Conversely, we find that a double power law IMF shape with a varying high-mass end slope is compatible (within 1$\sigma$) with 95% of the galaxies. We also show that dynamical and stellar IMF mismatch factors give consistent results for the systematic variation of the IMF in these galaxies., Comment: 6 pages, 3 figures, accepted for publication in MNRAS Letters

We observed the lenticular galaxy NGC 3998 with the Mitchell Integral-Field Spectrograph and extracted line-of-sight velocity distributions out to 3 half-light radii. We constructed collisionless orbit models in order to constrain NGC 3998's dark and visible structure, using kinematics from both the Mitchell and SAURON instruments. We find NGC 3998 to be almost axisymmetric, seen nearly face on with a flattened intrinsic shape - i.e., a face-on fast-rotator. We find an I-band mass-to-light ratio of $4.7_{-0.45}^{+0.32}$ in good agreement with previous spectral fitting results for this galaxy. Our best-fit orbit model shows a both a bulge and a disc component, with a non-negligible counter-rotating component also evident. We find that relatively little dark matter is needed to model this galaxy, with an inferred dark mass fraction of just $(7.1^{+8.1}_{-7.1})\%$ within one half-light radius., Comment: 17 pages, 21 figures, accepted by MNRAS

This paper describes the Third Public Data Release (DR3) of the Calar Alto Legacy Integral Field Area (CALIFA) survey. Science-grade quality data for 667 galaxies are made public, including the 200 galaxies of the Second Public Data Release (DR2). Data were obtained with the integral-field spectrograph PMAS/PPak mounted on the 3.5m telescope at the Calar Alto Observatory. Three different spectral setups are available, i) a low-resolution V500 setup covering the wavelength range 3749-7500 AA (4240-7140 AA unvignetted) with a spectral resolution of 6.0 AA (FWHM), for 646 galaxies, ii) a medium-resolution V1200 setup covering the wavelength range 3650-4840 AA (3650-4620 AA unvignetted) with a spectral resolution of 2.3 AA (FWHM), for 484 galaxies, and iii) the combination of the cubes from both setups (called COMBO), with a spectral resolution of 6.0 AA and a wavelength range between 3700-7500 AA (3700-7140 AA unvignetted), for 446 galaxies. The Main Sample, selected and observed according to the CALIFA survey strategy covers a redshift range between 0.005 and 0.03, spans the color-magnitude diagram and probes a wide range of stellar mass, ionization conditions, and morphological types. The Extension Sample covers several types of galaxies that are rare in the overall galaxy population and therefore not numerous or absent in the CALIFA Main Sample. All the cubes in the data release were processed using the latest pipeline, which includes improved versions of the calibration frames and an even further improved im- age reconstruction quality. In total, the third data release contains 1576 datacubes, including ~1.5 million independent spectra. It is available at http://califa.caha.es/DR3., Comment: 23 pages, 15 figures, accepted to be published in A&A

We have developed spherically symmetric dynamical models of dwarf spheroidal galaxies using Schwarzschild's orbit superposition method. This type of modelling yields constraints both on the total mass distribution (e.g. enclosed mass and scale radius) as well as on the orbital structure of the system (e.g. velocity anisotropy). This method is thus less prone to biases introduced by assumptions in comparison to the more commonly used Jeans modelling, and it allows us to derive the dark matter content in a robust way. Here we present our results for the Sculptor dwarf spheroidal galaxy, after testing our methods on mock data sets. We fit both the second and fourth velocity moment profile to break the mass-anisotropy degeneracy. For an NFW dark matter halo profile, we find that the mass of Sculptor within 1 kpc is M_1kpc = 1.03 \pm 0.07 x 10^8 Msol, and that its velocity anisotropy profile is tangentially biased and nearly constant with radius. The preferred concentration (c ~ 15) is low for its dark matter mass but consistent within the scatter found in N-body cosmological simulations. When we let the value of the central logarithmic slope \alpha{} vary, we find that the best-fit model has \alpha{} = 0, although an NFW cusp or shallower is consistent at 1 \sigma{} confidence level. On the other hand, very cuspy density profiles with logarithmic central slopes \alpha{} < -1.5 are strongly disfavoured for Sculptor., Comment: 18 pages, 12 figures, accepted by MNRAS http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/content/433/4/3173

We have developed a spherically symmetric dynamical model of a dwarf spheroidal galaxy using the Schwarzschild method. This type of modelling yields constraints both on the total mass distribution (e.g. enclosed mass and scale radius) as well as on the orbital structure of the system modelled (e.g. velocity anisotropy). Therefore not only can we derive the dark matter content of these systems, but also explore possible formation scenarios. Here we present preliminary results for the Sculptor dSph. We find that the mass of Sculptor within 1kpc is 8.5\times10^(7\pm0.05) M\odot, its anisotropy profile is tangentially biased and slightly more isotropic near the center. For an NFW profile, the preferred concentration (~15) is compatible with cosmological models. Very cuspy density profiles (steeper than NFW) are strongly disfavoured for Sculptor., Comment: 2 pages, 4 figures, to appear in the proceedings of "Assembling the Puzzle of the Milky Way", Le Grand Bornand (Apr. 17-22, 2011)

[Abridged] We present ground-based MDM V-band and Spitzer/IRAC 3.6um-band photometric observations of the 72 representative galaxies of the SAURON Survey. In combination with the SAURON stellar velocity dispersion measured within an effective radius (se), this allows us to explore the location of our galaxies in the main scaling relations. We investigate the dependence of these relations on our recent kinematical classification of early-type galaxies (i.e. Slow/Fast Rotators) and the stellar populations. Slow Rotator and Fast Rotator E/S0 galaxies do not populate distinct locations in the scaling relations, although Slow Rotators display a smaller intrinsic scatter. Surprisingly, extremely young objects do not display the bluest (V-[3.6]) colours in our sample, as is usually the case in optical colours. This can be understood in the context of the large contribution of TP-AGB stars to the infrared, even for young populations, resulting in a very tight (V-[3.6]) - se relation that in turn allows us to define a strong correlation between metallicity and velocity dispersion. Many Sa galaxies appear to follow the Fundamental Plane defined by E/S0 galaxies. Galaxies that appear offset from the relations correspond mostly to objects with extremely young populations, with signs of on-going, extended star formation. We correct for this effect in the Fundamental Plane, by replacing luminosity with stellar mass using an estimate of the stellar mass-to-light ratio, so that all galaxies are part of a tight, single relation. The new estimated coefficients are consistent in both photometric bands and suggest that differences in stellar populations account for about half of the observed tilt with respect to the virial prediction. After these corrections, the Slow Rotator family shows almost no intrinsic scatter around the best-fit Fundamental Plane., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS. 32 pages, 20 figures, LaTeX

We present a preliminary analysis of the HI properties of early-type galaxies in the ATLAS3D sample. Using WSRT data for ~100 galaxies outside the Virgo cluster and data from the Alfalfa project for galaxies inside Virgo, we discuss the dependence of HI properties on environment. We detect HI in about half of the galaxies outside Virgo. For these systems, the HI morphology and kinematics change as a function of environment, going from regular, rotating systems around isolated galaxies to progressively more disturbed structures for galaxies with neighbours or in groups. In denser environment, inside Virgo, nearly none of the galaxies contains HI. We discuss future work in this field which will be enabled by next-generation, pre-SKA radio instruments. We present a simulated Apertif HI observation of an ATLAS3D early-type galaxy, showing how its appearance and detection level vary as a function of redshift., Comment: In the proceedings of the "Panoramic Radio Astronomy" conference held on 2-5 June 2009 in Groningen, the Netherlands. 6 pages, 3 figures; reference added

We combine SAURON integral field data of a representative sample of local early-type, red sequence galaxies with Spitzer/IRAC imaging in order to investigate the presence of trace star formation in these systems. With the Spitzer data, we identify galaxies hosting low-level star formation, as traced by PAH emission, with measured star formation rates that compare well to those estimated from other tracers. This star formation proceeds according to established scaling relations with molecular gas content, in surface density regimes characteristic of disk galaxies and circumnuclear starbursts. We find that star formation in early-type galaxies happens exclusively in fast-rotating systems and occurs in two distinct modes. In the first, star formation is a diffuse process, corresponding to widespread young stellar populations and high molecular gas content. The equal presence of co- and counter-rotating components in these systems strongly implies an external origin for the star-forming gas, and we argue that these star formation events may be the final stages of (mostly minor) mergers that build up the bulges of red sequence lenticulars. In the second mode of star formation, the process is concentrated into well-defined disk or ring morphologies, outside of which the host galaxies exhibit uniformly evolved stellar populations. This implies that these star formation events represent rejuvenations within previously quiescent stellar systems. Evidence for earlier star formation events similar to these in all fast rotating early-type galaxies suggests that this mode of star formation may be common to all such galaxies, with a duty cycle of roughly 1/10, and likely contributes to the embedded, co-rotating inner stellar disks ubiquitous in this population., Comment: Accepted for publication in MNRAS. 48 pages, 36 figures. Revision fixes typos, including column headers in Table 2. The revised paper with full resolution figures is available at http://astro.berkeley.edu/~shapiro/Papers/Shapiro_SAURON_PaperXV.pdf

We study the origin of the scaling relations of early-type galaxies (ETGs) by constructing detailed models of the stellar dynamics for the K-band selected, volume-limited ATLAS3D sample of 263 nearby ETGs, spanning a large range of masses and stellar velocity dispersions (60 < sigma < 350 km/s)., Comment: 1 page, no figures, LaTeX. Invited talk to Joint Discussion 01 "Dark Matter in Early-Type Galaxies". To appear in Highlights of Astronomy, Vol. 15, Proc. of the XXVIIth IAU General Assembly, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, August 2009, eds. L. V. E. Koopmans & T. Treu, Cambridge University Press

We use the integral-field spectrograph SAURON to measure the stellar line-of-sight velocity distribution and absorption line strengths out to four effective radii (Re) in the early-type galaxies NGC 3379 and NGC 821. With our newly developed observing technique we can now probe these faint regions in galaxies that were previously not accessible with traditional long-slit spectroscopy. We make optimal use of the large field-of-view and high throughput of the spectrograph: by adding the signal of all ~1400 lenslets into one spectrum, we obtain sufficient signal-to-noise in a few hours of observing time to reliably measure the absorption line kinematics and line strengths out to large radius. We find that the line strength gradients previously observed within 1 Re remain constant out to at least 4 Re, which puts constraints on the merger histories of these galaxies. The stellar halo populations are old and metal-poor. By constructing orbit-based Schwarzschild dynamical models we find that dark matter is necessary to explain the observed kinematics in NGC 3379 and NGC 821, with 30 - 50 per cent of the total matter being dark within 4 Re. The radial anisotropy in our best-fit halo models is less than in our models without halo, due to differences in orbital structure. The halo also has an effect on the Mgb - Vesc relation: its slope is steeper when a dark matter halo is added to the model., Comment: 15 pages, 16 figures, accepted for publication by MNRAS

We describe a new technique to measure stellar kinematics and line-strengths at large radii in nearby galaxies. Using the integral-field spectrograph SAURON as a 'photon-collector', we obtain spectra out to four effective radii (Re) in the early-type galaxy NGC 3379. By fitting orbit-based models to the extracted stellar velocity profile, we find that ~40% of the total mass within 5 Re is dark. The measured absorption line-strengths reveal a radial gradient with constant slope out to 4 Re., Comment: 4 pages, 3 figures, to appear in the proceedings of "Galaxy Evolution: Emerging Insights and Future Challenges", 11-14 November 2008, Austin, USA

We construct axisymmetric and triaxial galaxy models with a phase-space distribution function that depends on linear combinations of the three exact integrals of motion for a separable potential. These Abel models, first introduced by Dejonghe & Laurent and subsequently extended by Mathieu & Dejonghe, are the axisymmetric and triaxial generalisations of the well-known spherical Osipkov-Merritt models. We show that the density and higher order velocity moments, as well as the line-of-sight velocity distribution (LOSVD) of these models can be calculated efficiently and that they capture much of the rich internal dynamics of early-type galaxies. We build a triaxial and oblate axisymmetric galaxy model with projected kinematics that mimic the two-dimensional kinematic observations that are obtained with integral-field spectrographs such as SAURON. We fit the simulated observations with axisymmetric and triaxial dynamical models constructed with our numerical implementation of Schwarzschild's orbit-superposition method. We find that Schwarzschild's method is able to recover the internal dynamics and three-integral distribution function of realistic models of early-type galaxies., Comment: 34 pages, 21 figures; companion paper at arXiv:0712.0113; accepted for publication in MNRAS; PDF file with full resolution figures at http://www.sns.ias.edu/~glenn/vdven_abel.pdf

We present a flexible and efficient method to construct triaxial dynamical models of galaxies with a central black hole, using Schwarzschild's orbital superposition approach. Our method is general and can deal with realistic luminosity distributions, which project to surface brightness distributions that may show position angle twists and ellipticity variations. The models are fit to measurements of the full line-of-sight velocity distribution (wherever available). We verify that our method is able to reproduce theoretical predictions of a three-integral triaxial Abel model. In a companion paper (van de Ven, de Zeeuw & van den Bosch), we demonstrate that the method recovers the phase-space distribution function. We apply our method to two-dimensional observations of the E3 galaxy NGC 4365, obtained with the integral-field spectrograph SAURON, and study its internal structure, showing that the observed kinematically decoupled core is not physically distinct from the main body and the inner region is close to oblate axisymmetric., Comment: 21 Pages, 14 (Colour) Figures, Companion paper is arXiv:0712.0309 Accepted to MNRAS. Full resolution version at http://www.strw.leidenuniv.nl/~bosch/papers/RvdBosch_triaxmethod.pdf

Supermassive black holes are a key element in our understanding of how galaxies form. Most of the progress in this very active field of research is based on just ~30 determinations of black hole mass, accumulated over the past decade. We illustrate how integral-field spectroscopy, and in particular our OASIS modeling effort, can help improve the current situation., Comment: 4 pages, 2 figures, LaTeX. To appear in the proceedings of IAU Symposium 245 "Formation and Evolution of Galaxy Bulges", M. Bureau, E. Athanassoula, and B. Barbuy, eds

We analyse the orbital distribution of E and S0 galaxies using SAURON integral-field stellar kinematics. We construct the anisotropy (V/sigma,epsilon) diagram, for the 48 E/S0 galaxies from the SAURON survey. For a subsample of 24 galaxies consistent with axisymmetry, we use three-integral axisymmetric Schwarzschild dynamical models to recover the detailed orbital distribution and we find good agreement with the anisotropy derived from the (V/sigma,epsilon) diagram. In the companion Paper IX we show that the early-type galaxies can be subdivided into two classes of systems with or without a significant amount of specific stellar angular momentum. Here we show that the two classes have different distributions on the (V/sigma,epsilon) diagram. The slow rotators are more common among the most massive systems and are generally classified as E from photometry alone. Those in our sample tend to be fairly round (epsilon<0.3), but can have significant kinematical misalignments, indicating that as a class they are moderately triaxial, and span a range of anisotropies (delta<0.3). The fast rotators are generally fainter and are classified either E or S0. They can appear quite flattened (epsilon<0.7), do not show significant kinematical misalignments (unless barred or interacting), indicating they are nearly axisymmetric, and span an even larger range of anisotropies (delta<0.5). These results are confirmed when we extend our analysis to 18 additional E/S0 galaxies observed with SAURON. All these results support the idea that fast rotators are nearly oblate and contain disk-like components. The role of gas must have been important for their formation. The slow rotators are weakly triaxial. Current collisionless merger models seem unable to explain their detailed observed properties. (Abridged), Comment: 27 pages, 22 figures, LaTeX. Accepted for publication in MNRAS

We investigate the well-known correlations between the dynamical mass-to-light ratio M/L and other global observables of elliptical (E) and lenticular (S0) galaxies. We construct two-integral Jeans and three-integral Schwarzschild dynamical models for a sample of 25 E/S0 galaxies with SAURON integral-field stellar kinematics to about one effective (half-light) radius R_e. The comparison of the dynamical M/L with the (M/L)_pop inferred from the analysis of the stellar population, indicates that dark matter in early-type galaxies contributes ~30% of the total mass inside one R_e, in agreement with previous studies, with significant variations from galaxy to galaxy. Our results suggest a variation in M/L at constant (M/L)_pop, which seems to be linked to the galaxy dynamics. We speculate that fast rotating galaxies have lower dark matter fractions than the slow rotating and generally more massive ones., Comment: 4 pages, 3 figures, LaTeX. Proceedings of the XXIst IAP Colloquium "Mass Profiles and Shapes of Cosmological Structures", Editors: G. Mamon, F. Combes, C. Deffayet, B. Fort, EDP Sciences, in press

We use integral-field observation of the stellar kinematics obtained with SAURON in combination with Schwarzschild dynamical models to revisit our understanding of the classic (V/sigma)-epsilon anisotropy diagram of early-type galaxies., Comment: 4 pages, 3 figures, LaTeX. To appear on the web proceedings of "Nearly Normal Galaxies in a LCDM Universe. A conference celebrating the 60th birthdays of George Blumenthal, Sandra Faber and Joel Primack". Santa Cruz, CA, 2005 (see http://astro.ucsc.edu/~nng/)

We determine the dynamical distance D, inclination i, mass-to-light ratio M/L and the intrinsic orbital structure of the globular cluster omega Cen, by fitting axisymmetric dynamical models to the ground-based proper motions of van Leeuwen et al. and line-of-sight velocities from four independent data-sets. We correct the observed velocities for perspective rotation caused by the space motion of the cluster, and show that the residual solid-body rotation component in the proper motions can be taken out without any modelling other than assuming axisymmetry. This also provides a tight constraint on D tan i. Application of our axisymmetric implementation of Schwarzschild's orbit superposition method to omega Cen reveals no dynamical evidence for a significant radial dependence of M/L. The best-fit dynamical model has a stellar V-band mass-to-light ratio M/L_V = 2.5 +/- 0.1 M_sun/L_sun and an inclination i = 50 +/- 4 degrees, which corresponds to an average intrinsic axial ratio of 0.78 +/- 0.03. The best-fit dynamical distance D = 4.8 +/- 0.3 kpc (distance modulus 13.75 +/- 0.13 mag) is significantly larger than obtained by means of simple spherical or constant-anisotropy axisymmetric dynamical models, and is consistent with the canonical value 5.0 +/- 0.2 kpc obtained by photometric methods. The total mass of the cluster is (2.5 +/- 0.3) x 10^6 M_sun. The best-fit model is close to isotropic inside a radius of about 10 arcmin and becomes increasingly tangentially anisotropic in the outer region, which displays significant mean rotation. This phase-space structure may well be caused by the effects of the tidal field of the Milky Way. The cluster contains a separate disk-like component in the radial range between 1 and 3 arcmin, contributing about 4% to the total mass., Comment: 37 pages (23 figures), accepted for publication in A&A, abstract abridged, for PS and PDF file with full resolution figures, see http://www.strw.leidenuniv.nl/~vdven/oc/

We have used the ARGUS multi-object spectrometer at the CTIO 4m Blanco telescope to obtain 2756 radial velocity measurements for 1966 individual stars in the globular cluster omega Centauri brighter than blue photographic magnitude of about 16.5. Of these, 1589 stars are cluster members. A comparison with two independent radial velocity studies, carried out by Suntzeff & Kraft and by Mayor et al., demonstrates that the median error of our measurements is below 2 km/s for the stars brighter than B-magnitude 15, which constitute the bulk of the sample. The observed velocity dispersion decreases from about 15 km/s in the inner few arcmin to about 6 km/s at a radius of 25 arcmin. The cluster shows significant rotation, with a maximum amplitude of about 6 km/s in the radial zone between 6 and 10 arcmin. In a companion paper by van de Ven et al., we correct these radial velocities for the perspective rotation caused by the space motion of the cluster, and combine them with the internal proper motions of nearly 8000 cluster members measured by van Leeuwen et al., to construct a detailed dynamical model of omega Centauri and to measure its distance., Comment: 10 pages (7 figures), accepted for publication in A&A

We investigate with unprecedented accuracy the correlations between the dynamical mass-to-light ratio M/L and other global observables of E and S0 galaxies. We construct two-integral Jeans and three-integral Schwarzschild dynamical models for a sample of 25 E/S0 galaxies with SAURON integral-field stellar kinematics. We find a tight correlation of the form (M/L)=(3.80+/-0.14)*(sigma/200 km/s)^(0.84+/-0.07) between the dynamical M/L (in the I-band) and the luminosity-weighted second moment (sigma) of the line-of-sight velocity-distribution within Re. The observed rms scatter in M/L for our sample is 18%, while the inferred intrinsic scatter is ~13%. The (M/L)-sigma relation can be included in the remarkable series of tight correlations between sigma and other galaxy global observables. The comparison of the observed correlations with the predictions of the Fundamental Plane (FP), and with simple virial estimates, shows that the `tilt' of the FP of early-type galaxies, is due to a real M/L variation, while structural and orbital non-homology have a negligible effect. The virial mass is a reliable estimator of the mass in the central regions of galaxies. The best-fitting virial relation has the form (M/L)_vir=(5.0+/-0.1)*Re*sigma^2/(L*G). The comparison of the dynamical M/L with the (M/L)_pop inferred from the analysis of the stellar population, indicates a median dark matter fraction in early-type galaxies of ~30% of the total mass inside one Re. (Abridged), Comment: 25 pages, 19 figures, LaTeX. MNRAS in press

We describe our program for the dynamical modeling of early-type galaxies observed with the panoramic integral-field spectrograph SAURON. We are using Schwarzschild's numerical orbit superposition method to reproduce in detail all kinematical and photometric observables, and recover the intrinsic orbital structure of the galaxies. Since catastrophes are the most prominent features in the orbital observables, two-dimensional kinematical coverage is essential to constrain the dynamical models., Comment: 5 pages, 4 figures, LaTeX. Published in 2003, Carnegie Observatories Astrophysics Series, Vol. 1: Coevolution of Black Holes and Galaxies, ed. L. C. Ho (Pasadena: Carnegie Observatories, http://www.ociw.edu/ociw/symposia/series/symposium1/proceedings.html)