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We indicate how existing Pioneer Venus Orbiter (PVO) data might be used to gain a better understanding of nightward ion flow in the Venusian ionosphere. Calculations based on PVO measurements made at solar maximum suggest that the global nightward flow of O(+) may be signifcantly greater than is required to maintain the observed nightside ionosphere densities. The validity of this conclusion depends upon (1) the accuracy with which the flow can be determined from the PVO ion density and velocity measurements and (2) the validity of the ionosphere theory used to estimate the required downward O(+) flux on the night side. If the measurements and theory are assumed to be accurate, the excess nightward flow implies a significant rate of ion escape from the planet, particularly at times of low solar wind dynamic pressure, Psw, when the ionopause rises to allow increased nightward flow. To illustrate a potentially important mechanism for ion escape from Venus, we present Orbiter Electron Temperature Probe (OETP) observations of plasma clouds and scavenged ionospheric plasma observed above the ionopause. We then employ OETP and Orbiter Retarding Potential Analyzer (ORPA) data to reexamine the global ion flow for average Psw conditions.

We present analyses from the five Pioneer Venus Orbiter plasma experiments and the plasma wave experiment when a patch of plasma with enhanced densities was encountered in the near-Venus ionotail during atmospheric entry at an altitude of approximately 1100 km in the nightside ionosphere. Our analyses of the thermal and superthermal ion measurements in this plasma feature provides the first evidence that at times molecular ions in the 28-32 amu mass range are dominant over atomic mass species thus yielding evidence for a transport mechanism that reaches into the lower ionosphere. Analysis of plasma analyzer (OPA) observations at this time indicates the presence of ions measured in the rest frame of the spacecraft at approximately 27 and 37 volt energy per unit charge steps. In the rest frame of the planet these superthermal ions are flowing from the dawn direction at speeds (assuming they are O2(+)) of approximately 8 km/s and with a flow component downward (perpendicular to the ecliptic plane) at speeds of approximately 2 km/s. OPA analyses also determine the ion number flux, energy, flow angles, and angular distributions. Plasma wave bursts appear to indicate that plasma density decreases within and on the equatorward edge of the patch of enhanced plasma densities are associated with ion acoustic waves and relative ion streaming.

The relation between electron temperature enhancement and large amplitude Pc 1 wave injections in the upper ionosphere is investigated using the data obtained by the Dynamics Explorer 2 spacecraft. Results can be summarized as follows: (1) The region of the temperature enhancement coincides with that of the wave injection which is latitudinally very narrow (less than 100 km) in comparison with the wavelength along the ambient magnetic field (several hundred kilometers). (2) The duration of the wave injection (or the temperature enhancement) seems to be less than a few hours even under quiet geomagnetic conditions, and/or the injection seems to be very localized, not only latitudinally, but also longitudinally. (3) The appearance and the magnitude of temperature enhancement depend on both the wave amplitude and the satellite altitude. (4) Two of the 22 events that were analyzed show a clear enhancement of low-energy electron flux (5 to 30 eV) at the wave injection, and the flux is field-aligned both downward and upward. The region of the temperature enhancement coincides with that of the downward electron flux. From these results, it is suggested that the temperature enhancement which accompanies large-amplitude waves with Pc 1 pulsation frequencies (0.2 to 5 Hz) is caused by the direct acceleration of thermal electrons at low altitudes by the parallel electric field (0.01 to 0.001 mV/m) of the ion-cyclotron waves (kinetic Alfven waves) having an oblique wave normal.

The Pioneer Venus Orbiter Electric Field Detector (OEFD) measured many plasma wave bursts throughout the low altitude ionosphere during the final entry phase of the spacecraft. Apart from 100 Hz bursts observed at very low altitudes (approx. 130 km), the bursts fall into two classes. The first of these is a wideband signal that is observed in regions of low magnetic field, but average densities, in comparison to the prevailing ionospheric condition. This wideband signal is not observed in the 30 kHz channel of the OEFD, but is restricted to the 5.4 kHz channel and lower. Since these bursts are observed with roughly constant burst rate above 160 km altitude, we attribute them to ion acoustic mode waves generated by precipitating solar wind electrons. The second type of signal is restricted to 100 Hz only, and is observed in regions of low electron beta, consistent with whistler-mode waves. These waves could be generated by lightning in the Venus atmosphere if the vertical component of the magnetic field greater than 3.6 nT. Unfortunately, the spacecraft spin axis is mainly horizontal, and only that component of magnetic field can be measured. Alternatively, the 100 Hz bursts could be generated locally through gradient drift instabilities, provided the ambient magnetic field is horizontal. Because the ionosphere is very different during the entry phase, compared to the ionosphere as observed early in the Pioneer Venus mission, any conclusions regarding the source of the plasma waves detected during entry phase cannot be applied directly to the earlier observations.

During the entry phase of the Pioneer Venus Orbiter, defined as that period at the end of mission in 1992 when the periapsis fell below 185 km, the magnetometer made repeated measurements throughout the post midnight ionosphere until about 0430 LT. In this region the magnetic field is generally stronger at comparable altitudes than it was earlier at times of higher solar activity. This increase combined with a decrease in electron density causes the ratio of the magnetic pressure to thermal pressure to approach unity at altitudes above 200 km, whereas it was much lower than unity at these altitudes during solar maximum. From 160-200 km the magnetic field pressure exceeds that of the ionospheric plasma quite unlike the usual conditions seen at the beginning of the mission. At lowest altitudes below 150 km, however, the field becomes weaker and hence no evidence for a planetary magnetic field is found.

During the final, low solar activity phase of the Pioneer Venus (PV) mission, the Orbiter Ion Mass Spectrometer (OIMS) measurements found all ion species, in the midnight-dusk sector, reduced in concentration relative to that observed at solar maximum. Molecular ion species comprised a greater part of the total ion concentration as O(+) and H(+) had the greatest depletions. The nightside ionospheric states were strikingly similar to the isolated solar maximum 'disappearing' ionospheres. Both are very dynamic states characterized by a rapidly drifting plasma and 30-100 eV superthermal O(+) ions.

Solar activity varied widely over the 14 year lifetime of the Pioneer Venus Orbiter, and these variations directly affected the properties of the nightside ionosphere. At solar maximum, when solar EUV was largest, the Venus ionosphere was found to extend to highest altitudes and nightward ion transport was the main source of the nightside ionosphere. At solar minimum, nightward ion transport was reduced, and electron precipitation was thought to be the main source. In this study, we have attempted a separation of spatial variations from temporal variations by examining the altitude profiles of the magnetic field, and electron density and temperature for three different solar EUV flux ranges. In the upper ionosphere and near-planet magnetotail (h greater than 1800 km), the solar EUV effects are significant. The electron density decreases about an order of magnitude from high to low EUV flux, while the electron temperature at least doubles. The magnetic field also increases 2 - 3 nT. In the lower ionosphere (200 - 600 km), lower EUV fluxes are associated with slightly reduced density, and higher temperature. These results are in accord with recent entry phase observations, where the electron density measured above the ionospheric density peak is lower than that observed at solar maximum during the early Pioneer Venus mission.

The ionopause altitude near the terminator is a crucial parameter for studies dealing with the maintenance of the nightside ionosphere of Venus. It is generally thought that, during high solar wind dynamic pressures (P(SW)) or during solar minimum conditions, the ionopause comes down to very low altitudes so that the dayside ionosphere is not able to supply sufficient plasma to maintain the observed nightside densities. However, there are a number of workable definitions of the ionopause. Near the terminator, the altitude of the ionopause differs considerably depending upon the definition. The ionopause deduced from the radio occultation experiment as well as the pressure ionopause can be significantly lower than the density ionopause deduced from the Langmuir probe at these locations. The latter refers to the altitude where the electron density falls to 100/cu cm. Using in situ data from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter, it is shown that the density ionopause remains fairly high even for high P(SW) conditions. Simple quantitative estimates indicate that significant flow of plasma is still possible under these conditions. Thus, nightward transport of plasma during high P(SW) conditions may be more efficient than has been assumed so far. Since such conditions are more prevalent during solar cycle minimum, it is argued that transport may be relevant in the maintenance of nightside ionosphere at that time also.

The present study uses an extensive DE-2 data base to both constrain inputs to a time-dependent ionospheric model (TDIM) for a simulation of the ionosphere and then check the simulated densities. The investigation was carried out for both a quiet period and a substorm period. The quiet-day study produced very good agreement between modeled and observed electron densities in the topside ionosphere with two significant exceptions: First, across the polar region the DE-2 LANG densities showed fine structure in addition to the overall regional density morphology. Second, a surprising discrepancy arose in the presunrise and midlatitude trough. The TDIM densities were an order of magnitude lower than those observed by DE-2. The substorm study showed remarkably good agreement with the observed densities.

The Venus-like interaction between the solar wind and the atmosphere of Mars is examined. The bow shock and magnetosheath of Mars indicate the presence of an obstacle to the solar wind that is somewhat larger than the size of the planet and its observed ionosphere, and also relatively larger than the Venus obstacle under comparable conditions. The intrinsic magnetic field of Mars must be no greater than 1.5 x 10 exp 12 T/cu m, or about 0.0001 times as strong as that of the earth to produce an obstacle of such small size. At least for solar minimum conditions, like those prevailing at the time of the Viking Landers, the ionospheric plasma (thermal) pressure is insufficient to balance the incident solar-wind pressure by itself. The ion and electron temperatures in the Martian ionosphere indicate the presence of local horizontal magnetic fields and heat sources in excess of solar radiation alone.

Two focused Mars missions that would fit within the guidelines for the proposed Discovery line are discussed. The first mission would deal with the issue of the escape of the atmosphere (Mars') to space. A complete understanding of this topic is crucial to deciphering the evolution of the atmosphere, climate change, and volatile inventories. The second mission concerns the investigation of remanent magnetization of the crust and its relationship to the ionosphere and the atmosphere.

The individual volt-ampere curves from the Pioneer Venus Orbiter electron temperature probe showed evidence for small-scale density irregularities, or short-period plasma waves, in regions of the nightside ionosphere where the Orbiter electric field detector observed waves in its 100-Hz channel. A survey of the nightside volt-ampere curves has revealed several hundred examples of such irregularities. The I-V structures correspond to plasma density structure with spatial scale sizes in the range of about 100-2000 m, or alternatively they could be viewed as waves having frequencies extending toward 100 Hz. They are often seen as isolated events, with spatial extent along the orbit frequently less than 80 km. The density irregularities or waves occur in or near prominent gradients in the ambient plasma concentrations both at low altitudes where molecular ions are dominant and at higher altitudes in regions of reduced plasma density where O(+) is the major ion. Electric field 100-Hz bursts occur simultaneously, with the majority of the structured I-V curves providing demonstrative evidence that at least some of the E field signals are produced within the ionosphere.

The overall properties of Venus ionospheric tail rays (such as density, spatial extent, and distribution) and their relationship to the draped magnetic field configuration behind the planet were investigated using measurements obtained by the Pioneer Venus Orbiter Langmuir probe, a magnetometer, and a plasma-wave detector. The results suggest that tail rays are a normal feature of the steady solar wind interaction with Venus and are not generally associated with a central tail plasma sheet. The statistics of the tail rays occurrence point toward the existence of a distributed terminator ionosphere source, consistent with findings of Brace et al. (1990).

The magnetic field control of Venus plasma 'clouds' relative to the planet has been analyzed by rotating the observed locations of the clouds into a coordinate system in which all of the transverse upstream magnetic fields were aligned. The results indicate that clouds are scattered around the periphery of the planet in the terminator plane. There is no evidence of a concentration of clouds where the magnetosheath magnetic field is most strongly 'draped'. On the other hand, statistics show that the change in the orientation of the transverse upstream magnetic field between the inbound and outbound bow shock crossings, for the orbits where clouds are seen is about 30 deg greater than the average upstream change at Venus over the same time intervals.

The PVO neutral mass spectrometer has measured the over 36-eV ions in the 1300-3700 km altitude range for solar zenith angles greater than 120 deg. The composition is mainly O(+), but He(+), N(+), NO(+), and O2(+) have been identified. The average O(+) flux is about 100,000/sq cm/s, but higher fluxes from 10 to the 6th to 10 to the 8th/sq cm/s are observed about 10 percent of the time. The directions of the apparent O(+) flow in the ecliptic plane show predominantly tailward components with a smaller number of nontailward components. The over 36-eV O(+) escape flux in the ionotail is estimated to be about 100,000/sq cm/s. The O(+) flux data show a factor of 2.5 increase from solar minimum to maximum, implying a photoionization source for these ions. The composition of the superthermal ions in the ionotail suggests that their source is most likely the high-altitude nightside ionosphere. Transport of superthermal O(+) across the terminator to the nightside has been observed.

Data obtained from the WATS (Wind and Temperature Spectrometer) and LP (Langmuir Probe) experiments on board DE-2 (Dynamic Explorer) during high solar activity show evidence of anomalous latitudinal variations in the zonal winds and temperature at low latitudes. The zonal winds exhibit a broad maximum centered around the dip equator, flanked by minima on either side around 25 degrees; while the temperature exhibits a pronounced bowl-shaped minimum at the dip equator which is flanked by maxima. The two minima in the zonal winds and the corresponding maxima in the temperature are nearly collocated with the crests of the well known Equatorial Ionization Anomaly (EIA). The maximum in the zonal winds and the minimum in the gas temperature are collocated with the trough of the EIA. The differences between the maxima and minima in temperature and zonal winds, on many occasions, are observed to exceed 100 K and 100 m/s, respectively. The characteristics of this new phenomenon have eluded present day empirical models of thermospheric temperature and winds. The connection among these variables can be understood from the ion-neutral drag effect on the motions of the neutrals that in turn affect their energy balance.

A statistical study of the seasonal variations of the subauroral electron temperature enhancement was undertaken using data from the Langmuir probe experiment on the DE 2 satellite throughout most of the mission (1981-1982). In the winter hemisphere the nighttime background electron temperature is the highest and the magnitude of the peak Te responds most weakly to the geomagnetic activity. This behavior can be explained by seasonal trends in the nighttime downward heat flux due to conjugate photoelectrons. Moreover, model results indicate that a factor of about three increase in heat inflow during equinox relative to solstice is required to raise the electron temperature to a given level. This is a consequence of the higher electron densities at the Te peak near equinox. The Te peak occurs on field lines which thread the outer plasmasphere in the vicinity if the plasmapause and thus can be used as a tracer of the plasmapause position.

The prevalent attributes of near-Mars space are described: the ambient interplanetary environment, the ionosphere, the upper atmosphere, and more remote regions that are affected by the presence of Mars. The descriptions are based on existing Martian data and/or models constructed from measurements made near Venus. Specific attention is given to the features of solar wind interaction with magnetospheric and ionospheric obstacles. The high-altitude plasma and field environment, the energetic particle environment, the ionosphere environment, and the neutral upper atmosphere environment are described with extensive graphic information, based on existing measurements collected from nine Martian missions. The ionospheric obstacle is assumed to prevail as a mechanism for describing the scenario. Martian perturbation of solar wind is theorized to be of a relatively small order. A distinctive local energetic particle population of planetary origin is shown to result from the direct interaction of solar wind plasma. This phenomenon is considered evidence of the important scavenging of planetary elements from Mars. The absence of a planetary dipole field around Mars, like its low gravity and distance from the sun, is considered important in determining the environment of this earthlike laboratory.

The morphology and temporal variability of the Venus ionosphere are characterized, reviewing the results of recent theoretical investigations, observations, and in situ measurements, especially by the Pioneer Venus Orbiter (PVO). Consideration is given to the Pioneer mission and orbit evolution, early radio occultation profiles of ionospheric N(e), the mean structure and thermal balance of the ionosphere, the ion composition and its dawn-dusk asymmetry, the small-scale spatial structure on the nightside, latitudinal and seasonal variations, solar-cycle effects, suprathermal electrons and superthermal ions, and the global configuration and stability of the ionopause. Data from a single PVO passage through the ionotail are discussed in detail, examining the implications for ion escape and the solar-cycle and short-term variability. The differences among the terrestrial, Martian, and Venusian ionospheres are outlined; the PVO data base is described; and the sources of measurement error are indicated.

An attempt is made to classify ionospheric storm effects at subauroral latitudes according to their presumed origin. The storm of December 7/8, 1982, serves as an example. It is investigated using ionosonde, electron content, and DE 2 satellite data. The following effects are distinguished: (1) positive storm effects caused by traveling atmospheric disturbances, (2) positive storm effects caused by changes in the large-scale thermospheric wind circulation, (3) positive storm effects caused by the expansion of the polar ionization enhancement, (4) negative storm effects caused by perturbations of the neutral gas composition, and (5) negative storm effects caused by the equatorward displacement of the trough region.

The elevation of the subauroral electron temperature is one of the phenomena showing the energy transfer from the magnetosphere and the response of the ionosphere. This study addresses solar cycle variations in the subauroral Te peak by comparing observations of the subauroral peak by the Atmosphere Explorer C (AE-C) satellite near solar minimum (1974 and 1977) with similar observations by the Dynamics Explorer 2 (DE 2) satellite near solar maximum (1981-1982). Te peaks with magnitudes sufficient to produce observable stable auroral red arc emissions occurred more frequently during solar maximum than in solar minimum, but the variation in the magnitudes and positions of these peaks with magnetic activity did not change significantly with solar cycle. These results are discussed in terms of the solar cycle changes in the ionosphere and the magnetospheric energy source.

A global spectral model of electron temperature and density is developed in which only the latitudinal variations observed in narrow altitude and local time bands are used. The measurements for this purpose are obtained during intervals that are short as compared to a season. By suppressing all variables except latitude the model can use 17th-order polynomials and generates a latitudinal structure that is similar to that described by the observational data. The treatment is designed to correct for the eccentricity and slow evolution of the data-collection satellite orbit so that small-scale features can be resolved. By comparing the results of a global model and the present latitudinal model to observational measurements of electron temperature and density it is shown that auroral-zone and midlatitude trough structures are not resolved in latitudinal models. The observational data can be used to study the response of electron density and temperature to solar EUV flux variations and geomagnetic activity.

Ion-mass spectrometers were carried by a number of satellites in the 1970s. The ion-composition measurements from two of these missions, the Orbiting Geophysical Observatory-6 and the Atmosphere Explorer-C, are collected into an ion composition data base to evaluate several widely used empirical and theoretical models for the species H(+), He(+), N(+), O(+), NO(+), N2(+), and O2(+). The data base covers all latitudes and local times, and the altitude range from 150 km to 1200 km, but here altitude plots are presented of the ion densities at noon and at dip latitudes of 20-40 deg N. The satellite data are compared with an early ion-density profile, with the Koehnlein and IRI-90 empirical models, and with the Utah State University theoretical ionosphere model. These comparisons serve to verify some aspects of the models, but they also reveal some outstanding differences. The solar activity dependence of H(+), He(+), N(+), and O(+) is demonstrated, although this has not been possible for the molecular ions because low altitude measurements have not been made near solar maximum.

Results are presented of physical interpretations of a sequence of in situ measurements taken in the midlatitude dusk sector during the geomagnetic storm of November 24, 1982 by instruments on board the DE-2 spacecraft in polar orbit. The results represent the first comparison of nearly simultaneous measurements, obtained at different seasons in a common local time sector, of storm disturbances in dc electric fields, zonal ion convection, zonal winds, gas composition and temperature, and electron density and temperature.

The Utah State University Ionospheric Model was run to obtain diurnally reproducible ionospheric densities and temperatures for summer and winter conditions using both distorted two-cell and three-cell convection patterns. Differences due to the different convection patterns manifest themselves in the depth and location of polar holes in the F-region electron density. While the total depth of the model holes is a characteristic of the diurnally reproducible pattern, the features appear and are recognizable within 0.5 h. Langmuir probe data from 41 DE-2 passes, during which the IMF Bz component was northward, have been qualitatively checked against the model predictions. The cross polar cap electron density profiles of a large majority of the passes more closely conform to the distorted two-cell runs for both polarities of the IMF By component. This test can be generalized to rule out proposed convection patterns based on the presence/absence and position of polar electron density holes.

This paper presents Dynamic Explorer data on the plasma coupling between the plasmasphere and ionosphere. DE 1 measurements of ion composition and temperatures at 1.4-3.5 R(F) in the plasmasphere were combined with DE-2 measurements of ion composition and electron and ion temperatures in the upper F region/topside ionosphere, closely spaced in universal and local time for cases in the November 6-11, 1981 period. The observations are compared directly with the field-line interhemispheric plasma (FLIP) model calculations of altitudinal ion density and temperature profiles. It was found that, when the FLIP model permitted fractional trapping of ionospheric photoelectrons and consequent plasmaspheric heating, good agreement with the observations was obtained.

The evolution of the Venus small-scale waves as they propagate into the nightsite is examined, and the small-scale structures are compared with the waves in the three components of the magnetic field, magnetic dip angle, and neutral density. It is demonstrated that the small-scale fluctuations evolve between the transterminator and antisolar regions. It is shown that atmospheric gravity waves may also be producing some of the fluctuations observed at longer wavelengths. The electron temperature and density are shown to be approximately 180 deg out of phase and exhibiting the highest correlation of any pair of variables. Waves in the electron and neutral densities are found to be correlated moderately on most orbits, while the average electron temperature is higher when the average magnetic field is more horizontal.

Pioneer Venus in situ measurements of N(e), total solar EUV flux, and solar wind dynamic pressure P(sw) are used to investigate the solar cycle and orbit-to-orbit variations of the Venus nightside ionosphere. It is found that the density of the main body of the nightside ionosphere below 600 km responds to the solar wind dynamic pressure variations in much the same way that the density of the ionotail does: both regions are depleted at times of high P(sw). Solar cycle variations in the EUV flux near solar minimum produce very large changes in the electron density in ionotail, changes that are consistent with the ionotail being supplied by nightward ion flow. However, short-term variations in the EUV flux produce a weak negative response in the density at altitudes between 150 and 600 km, at least at solar maximum. The nightside variations are consistent with enhanced solar wind scavenging of plasma from the nightside ionosphere during periods of higher P(sw).

The photoelectron current from the Pioneer Venus Langmuir probe has provided measurements of the total flux of solar EUV photons at Venus since 1979. The neutral oxygen scale height measured by the orbiter neutral mass spectrometer has permitted the exospheric temperature to be derived during the same mission. In this paper, the EUV observations are used to examine the response of exospheric temperature to changes in solar activity, primarily those related to solar rotation. It is found that the dayside exospheric temperature quite faithfully tracks variations in the EUV flux. Comparison is also made with the earth-based solar activity index F10.7 adjusted to the position of Venus. This index varied from 142 to 249 flux units during the period of measurements. The exospheric temperature is better correlated with EUV flux than with the 10.7-cm solar radio flux.

Solar UV and EUV varies significantly during the solar cycle. Pioneer Venus can measure this variation both directly and indirectly. A direct measure of the EUV is obtained from the photoelectron current of the Langmuir probe when the spacecraft is in the solar wind. The indirect measure is by monitoring the location of the Venus bow shock. The UV and EUV both heat the upper atmosphere and ionize it. When solar activity is high, the upper atmosphere should be ionized more rapidly. This effect adds a greater number of planetary ions to the magnetosheath plasma as it flows by Venus. It is this increase in mass flow that causes the Venus bow shock to move away from its solar minimum location. Pioneer Venus has now monitored the location of the bow shock for an entire solar cycle. The bow shock location is well correlated with the variation in EUV flux as measured by the Langmuir probe. The bow shock is farther from Venus than expected from the sunspot number or 10.7 cm solar radio flux, indicating that solar UV radiation may be even stronger at the present time than would be predicted from the relationships determined during the previous solar cycle.

Newly developed global models of the electron density of (Ne) and (Te) in the F-region at solar maximum, based on Langmuir probe measurements from the Dynamics Explorer-2 satellite, are compared with solar minimum models that were developed earlier from Atmosphere Explorer data. Spherical harmonics are used in both models to describe the variations with geomagnetic latitude and local time, but the solar maximum model also includes longitudinal variations. The solar minimum models were for the fixed altitudes of 300 km and 400 km, while the solar maximum model covers all altitudes between 300 and 1000 km. In this paper, the global patterns of Ne and Te at 400 km at solar maximum and minimum are compared with the IRI model for the corresponding parts of the solar cycle. In most respects, the IRI model describes the empirical models quite well at both solar maximum and solar minimum.

It has been observed from the plasma experiments on the Pioneer Venus Orbiter that the altitude of the upper boundary of the ionosphere decreases in response to increasing solar wind dynamic pressure. However, at pressures above about 2.5 x 10 to the -8th dynes/sq cm, the further decrease in the ionopause height is rather small. Following the model of Cloutier et al. (1969), it is suggested that during high solar wind conditions, when the ionopause is formed at lower altitudes, the solar wind induces vertical and horizontal flows which sweep away the ionospheric plasma that is produced locally by photoionization. As a result, a disturbed photodynamical ionosphere is formed which has the scale height of the ionizable neutral constituent. It is shown that such a photodynamical ionosphere is observed at the subsolar ionopause under these conditions. As a consequence of this interaction, the ionopause altitude is observed to follow the small-scale height of the ionizable species, atomic oxygen, showing only small changes with solar wind pressure.

This paper describes the observations by the Pioneer-Venus-Orbiter Langmuir probe of the low-density Venus bow shock precursor, i.e., a region of electron and ion-current enhancements just upstream from the Venus bow shock. It is suggested that the precursor signatures represent the effects of a small population of energetic ions in this region. Several possible planetary sources of these ions are considered. The paper also discusses the Langmuir probe measurement technique itself as it applies to the very low densities of the precursor.

Data from the Pioneer Venus Langmuir probe, collected since 1979 (and thus, including the period between solar maximum in 1979-1980 and solar minimum in 1986-1987) are examined. Calculations show that about 51 percent of the solar emission at Venus is due to Lyman alpha (1216 A), 46 percent is produced by wavelengths between 550 and 1100 A, and less than 3 percent is due to wavelengths longer than Lyman alpha. The photocurrents were found to exhibit variations related to the solar cycle and solar rotation, as well as a major 7.2-month periodicity. Three different indices of solar EUV behavior at Venus were derived, which include the photoemission current itself, the total EUV flux, and an F(10.7)-like solar index, and are compared with related measurements made simultaneously at earth.

The Venus bow shock location has been measured at nearly 2000 shock crossings, and its dependence on solar EUV, solar wind conditions, and the interplanetary magnetic field determined. The shock position at the terminator varies from about 2.14 Venus radii at solar minimum to 2.40 Venus radii at solar maximum. The location of the shock varies little with solar wind dynamic pressure but strongly with solar wind Mach number. The shock is farthest from Venus on the side of the planet in which newly created ions gyrate away from the ionosphere. When the interplanetary magnetic field is perpendicular to the flow, the cross section of the shock is quite elliptical. This effect appears to be due to the anisotropic propagation of the fast magnetosonic wave. When the interplanetary magnetic field is aligned with the flow, the bow shock cross section is circular and only weakly sensitive to changing EUV flux.

Four large data sets of Venus ionopause observations, based on different definitions and observations by Pioneer Venus Orbiter field and particle instruments, are compared. Regardless of the definition chosen, the ionopause is observed to be higher on average at dawn than at dusk. The results of an empirical ionosphere model and a data analysis technique which minimizes orbital bias are combined to show that most or all of this asymmetry results from the effects of orbital bias and uneven sampling of solar wind conditions. However, an additional asymmetry is found in which the ionopause is displaced in the direction opposite to the motional electric field of the solar wind. This effect is attributed to asymmetric pickup of exospheric ions by the electric and magnetic fields in the magnetosheath. This ion pickup interpretation can be understood in terms of a previous observed magnetosheath magnetic field asymmetry. Quantitative analysis indicates that the transverse momentum imparted by the solar plasma to pickup particles in their initial gyration is transmitted by the magnetosheath magnetic field to the ionosphere boundary.

DE-2 and AE-C measurements of plasma and neutral densities were used to derive time constants for momentum transfer (MT) to neutrals from ions in the high-latitude thermosphere. The MT time constants for solar cycle maximum (DE-2) and for solar cycle minimum (AE-C) were averaged and binned according to geomagnetic latitude and LT to provide a quantitative measure for the tightness of ion-neutral momentum coupling (MC) in the 250-350-km altitude range. Comparisons with results obtained using the Chiu and MSIS-83 empirical models have provided an indication of the accuracy with which thermospheric general circulation models quantitatively reproduce the MC between ions and neutrals in the high-latitude F-region.

A large DE 1 and 2 database covering all local times is used to explore the relationship between electron temperature (Te) signatures in the F region and plamaspheric density structures. The quiet time Te signature remains in the vicinity of 60 deg invariant latitude at all local times, while the plasmapause is found to bulge to about 60 deg at 1500 LT. The plasmasphere in the bulge region is shown to exhibit an internal feature in the vicinity of 60 deg which takes the form of a sharp H(+) gradient. It is suggested that the light-ion gradient may represent a recently created sharp boundary between an old plasmasphere and a new plasmasphere. The present Te characteristics are consisent with plasmasphere depletion and refilling time constants.