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Intolerance of uncertainty (IU) is a key transdiagnostic feature of internalizing psychopathology. An increasing body of research suggests that IU is associated with increased psychophysiological reactivity in anticipation of unpredictable threat. However, most studies examining the psychophysiological correlates of IU have been conducted in adults. There is a critical need to understand the relationship between IU and psychophysiological reactivity in anticipation of unpredictable threat during adolescence, a key developmental period associated with increased exploration of situations with uncertain outcomes. Thus, the present study examined the association between (1) youth IU and (2) parental IU (as an indicator of risk) in relation to youth defensive motivation (startle reflex) and attention (startle probe N100 and P300) in anticipation of unpredictable threat.The sample included 193 13 to 22-year-old (M = 17.33, SD = 1.97) females and a biological parent. Participants and their parent completed a self-report measure of prospective and inhibitory IU. Youth startle potentiation, probe N100 enhancement, and probe P300 suppression (indicating increased attention to threat) were measured in anticipation of predictable and unpredictable threat.Youth prospective IU and inhibitory IU were not related to youth psychophysiological reactivity to predictable or unpredictable threat. Greater parental prospective IU was associated with greater youth startle potentiation and probe N100 enhancement in anticipation of unpredictable threat.The present study suggests that parental IU, but not concurrent IU, is associated with heightened defensive motivation and attentional engagement in anticipation of unpredictable threat in youth.

Background Adolescence is a key developmental period for the emergence of psychiatric disorders. However, there is still no consensus on the core mechanisms of dysfunction in youth. Neurobiological sensitivity to unpredictable threat has been associated with several psychiatric disorders in adults. The present study examined adolescent defensive motivation (startle reflex) and attention (event-related potentials) in anticipation of unpredictable threat in relation to both adolescent and maternal (i.e. familial risk) internalizing and externalizing spectra. Methods The sample included 395 15-year-old adolescents and their biological mothers. Adolescent startle potentiation and probe P300 suppression (indicating increased attention to threat) were measured in anticipation of predictable and unpredictable threat. Adolescent and maternal lifetime history of psychiatric disorders were assessed via semi-structured diagnostic interviews, and confirmatory factor analysis was used to model internalizing and externalizing spectra. Results The adolescent internalizing spectrum was positively associated with adolescent startle potentiation and probe P300 suppression to unpredictable threat. Conversely, the adolescent externalizing spectrum was negatively associated with adolescent P300 suppression to unpredictable threat. The maternal internalizing spectrum was positively associated with adolescent startle potentiation to unpredictable threat and P300 suppression to both predictable and unpredictable threat. The maternal externalizing spectrum was negatively associated with adolescent startle potentiation to unpredictable threat and P300 suppression to both predictable and unpredictable threat. Adolescent and maternal internalizing and externalizing spectra were independently related to adolescent startle potentiation and P300 suppression. Conclusions Adolescent neurobiological sensitivity to unpredictable threat is associated with both personal history and familial risk for the internalizing and externalizing spectra.

Youth personality is hypothesized to mediate the intergenerational transmission of internalizing disorders. However, this has rarely been examined. We tested whether the intergenerational transmission of depressive and anxiety disorders is mediated by youth neuroticism and extraversion, and how parent personality influenced these relationships. Participants included 550 adolescent girls, aged 13-15 years at baseline (T1), and a coparticipating biological parent. Depressive and anxiety disorders were assessed by interview at T1, and adolescents were reinterviewed every 9 months for 3 years (T2-T5). Parent and youth personality was assessed at T1. Four path models examined direct and indirect effects of parent psychopathology and personality (neuroticism and extraversion) on youth outcomes, with youth neuroticism and extraversion as mediators in separate models. In the model examining the effects of parent psychopathology via T1 youth neuroticism, there were direct effects of parent depression on T2-T5 youth depressive disorders and indirect effects of parent anxiety disorders on T2-T5 youth depressive and anxiety disorders. When parent neuroticism was added, indirect effects of T1 parent anxiety disorders and neuroticism on T2-T5 youth depressive and anxiety disorders via T1 youth neuroticism were significant. In the model examining T1 youth extraversion as a mediator, there were significant direct effects of parent depressive and anxiety disorders on T2-T5 youth depressive and anxiety disorders, respectively. Finally, when adding parent extraversion, indirect effects of parent extraversion on T2-T5 youth depressive and anxiety disorders via youth extraversion were significant. Parent and youth personality play important roles in the intergenerational transmission of depressive and anxiety disorders. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

A widely shared framework suggests that anxiety maps onto two dimensions: anxious apprehension and anxious arousal. Previous research linked individual differences in these dimensions to differential neural response patterns in neuropsychological, imaging, and physiological studies. Differential effects of the anxiety dimensions might contribute to inconsistencies in prior studies that examined neural processes underlying anxiety, such as hypersensitivity to unpredictable threat. We investigated the association between trait worry (as a key component of anxious apprehension), anxious arousal, and the neural processing of anticipated threat. From a large online community sample (N = 1,603), we invited 136 participants with converging and diverging worry and anxious arousal profiles into the laboratory. Participants underwent the NPU-threat test with alternating phases of unpredictable threat, predictable threat, and safety, while physiological responses (startle reflex and startle probe locked event-related potential components N1 and P3) were recorded. Worry was associated with increased startle responses to unpredictable threat and increased attentional allocation (P3) to startle probes in predictable threat anticipation. Anxious arousal was associated with increased startle and N1 in unpredictable threat anticipation. These results suggest that trait variations in the anxiety dimensions shape the dynamics of neural processing of threat. Specifically, trait worry seems to simultaneously increase automatic defensive preparation during unpredictable threat and increase attentional responding to threat-irrelevant stimuli during predictable threat anticipation. The current study highlights the utility of anxiety dimensions to understand how physiological responses during threat anticipation are altered in anxiety and supports that worry is associated with hypersensitivity to unpredictable, aversive contexts.

OBJECTIVE: Lower neural response to reward predicts subsequent depression during adolescence. Pubertal development and biological sex each have important effects on reward system development and depression during this period. However, relationships among these variables across the transition from childhood to adolescence are not well characterized. METHOD: Depressive symptoms, pubertal status, and the reward positivity (RewP) event-related potential component, a neural indicator of reward responsivity, were assessed in 609 community-recruited youth at ages 9, 12, and 15. Structural equation modeling was used to examine concurrent and prospective relationships within and between depression and the RewP, as well as the influence of pubertal status and biological sex on these variables across assessments. RESULTS: Stability paths for depression, the RewP, and pubertal status were significant across assessments. Compared to male participants, female youth reported more advanced pubertal status at all assessments, a smaller RewP at age 9 and higher levels of depression at age 15. More advanced pubertal status was associated with a larger RewP at age 15. Most importantly, there were bidirectional prospective effects between the RewP and depression from ages 12 to 15; a lower RewP at age 12 predicted increases in depression at age 15, whereas increased depression at age 12 predicted a lower RewP at age 15. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that there are bidirectional prospective effects between reward responsiveness and depression that emerge between ages 12 and 15. This may be a crucial time for studying bidirectional reward responsiveness-depression associations across time.

The Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) has emerged out of the quantitative approach to psychiatric nosology. This approach identifies psychopathology constructs based on patterns of co-variation among signs and symptoms. The initial HiTOP model, which was published in 2017, is based on a large literature that spans decades of research. HiTOP is a living model that undergoes revision as new data become available. Here we discuss advantages and practical considerations of using this system in psychiatric practice and research. We especially highlight limitations of HiTOP and ongoing efforts to address them. We describe differences and similarities between HiTOP and existing diagnostic systems. Next, we review the types of evidence that informed development of HiTOP, including populations in which it has been studied and data on its validity. The paper also describes how HiTOP can facilitate research on genetic and environmental causes of psychopathology as well as the search for neurobiologic mechanisms and novel treatments. Furthermore, we consider implications for public health programs and prevention of mental disorders. We also review data on clinical utility and illustrate clinical application of HiTOP. Importantly, the model is based on measures and practices that are already used widely in clinical settings. HiTOP offers a way to organize and formalize these techniques. This model already can contribute to progress in psychiatry and complement traditional nosologies. Moreover, HiTOP seeks to facilitate research on linkages between phenotypes and biological processes, which may enable construction of a system that encompasses both biomarkers and precise clinical description.

An aberrant neural response to rewards has been linked to both depression and social anxiety. Most studies have focused on the neural response to monetary rewards, and few have tested different modalities of reward (e.g. social) that are more salient to particular forms of psychopathology. In addition, most studies contain critical confounds, including contrasting positive and negative feedback and failing to disentangle being correct from obtaining positive feedback. In the present study, 204 participants underwent electroencephalography during monetary and social feedback tasks that were matched in trial structure, timing and feedback stimuli. The reward positivity (RewP) was measured in response to correctly identifying stimuli that resulted in monetary win, monetary loss, social like or social dislike feedback. All monetary and social tasks elicited a RewP, which were positively correlated. Across all tasks, the RewP was negatively associated with depression and positively associated with social anxiety. The RewP to social dislike feedback, independent of monetary and social like feedback, was also associated with social anxiety. The present study suggests that a domain-general neural response to correct feedback demonstrates a differential association with depression and social anxiety, but a domain-specific neural response to social dislike feedback is uniquely associated with social anxiety.

Numerous studies in children, adolescents and adults have reported that anxiety disorders and symptoms are associated with greater threat-potentiated startle responses. This suggests that it may also be related to risk factors that have been implicated in the genesis of anxiety disorders. Therefore, we examined the roles of early childhood temperamental behavioral inhibition (BI) and parental history of anxiety disorders in predicting threat-potentiated startle response in a community sample of 346 adolescents. Parental history of anxiety disorders moderated the effects of BI on subsequent startle responses. For both total startle response and unpredictable threat startle potentiation, higher levels of BI at age 3 predicted larger startle responses at age 15, but only among offspring of parents with a history of anxiety disorders. Among offspring of parents with no lifetime history of anxiety disorder, BI was unrelated to startle magnitude. These findings were evident even after adjusting for youth's biological sex, concurrent anxiety symptoms, and lifetime history of anxiety disorders. In contrast, neither BI nor parental anxiety significantly predicted startle potentiation to predictable threat. These findings have implications for tracing pathways to the development of anxiety disorders.

Anxiety disorders and symptoms disproportionately impact women relative to men, but it is unclear what mechanism(s) contribute to this phenomenon. The present study examined sensitivity to unpredictable threat as a potential mechanism of gender differences in panic symptoms. The sample included 67 participants (35 women) who completed the no, predictable, and unpredictable threat (NPU-threat) startle paradigm with electric shocks as the aversive stimulus. Participants also completed the self-report Inventory of Depression and Anxiety Symptoms to assess current panic and depression symptoms. Results indicated that women, relative to men, reported greater panic symptoms and demonstrated increased startle potentiation in anticipation of predictable and unpredictable threat. Furthermore, across all participants increased startle potentiation in anticipation of unpredictable (but not predictable) threat was associated with greater panic symptoms, but there was no relationship with depression symptoms. Finally, the gender difference in panic symptoms was mediated by startle potentiation in anticipation of unpredictable (but not predictable) threat. The present study suggests that a heightened sensitivity to unpredictable threat might be a mechanism that contributes to increased anxiety in women.

The (un)predictability of threat influences anticipatory emotional and motivational states. However, few investigations have examined the impact of threat type on defensive motivation. Two within-subject studies (total N = 134) examined defense motivation (startle reflex) and attentional engagement (probe N100, P300) in anticipation of shock and an aversive noise (scream) during a no, predictable, and unpredictable threat (NPU-threat) task. In Study 1, startle was potentiated for unpredictable shock and scream, but potentiation was greater for shock. Startle was potentiated for predictable shock but attenuated for predictable scream. In Study 2, the scream was paired with a scared female face. Startle was potentiated for both predictable and unpredictable shock and scream. The probe N100 was enhanced during unpredictable threat and the probe P300 was suppressed during both predictable and unpredictable threat. The present study suggests that threat type impacts unpredictable (but not predictable) defensive motivation but not attentional engagement. Moreover, predictable auditory aversive stimuli need a paired visual stimulus to enhance defensive motivation.

The popularity of network analysis in psychopathology research has increased exponentially in recent years. Yet, little research has examined the replicability of cross-sectional psychopathology network models, and those that have used single items for symptoms rather than multiitem scales. The present study therefore examined the replicability and generalizability of regularized partial correlation networks of internalizing symptoms within and across 5 samples (total N = 2,573) using the Inventory for Depression and Anxiety Symptoms, a factor analytically derived measure of individual internalizing symptoms. As different metrics may yield different conclusions about the replicability of network parameters, we examined both global and specific metrics of similarity between networks. Correlations within and between nonclinical samples suggested considerable global similarities in network structure (rss = .53-.87) and centrality strength (rss = .37-.86), but weaker similarities in network structure (rss = .36-.66) and centrality (rss = .04-.54) between clinical and nonclinical samples. Global strength (i.e., connectivity) did not significantly differ across all 5 networks and few edges (0-5.5%) significantly differed between networks. Specific metrics of similarity indicated that, on average, approximately 80% of edges were consistently estimated within and between all 5 samples. The most central symptom (i.e., dysphoria) was consistent within and across samples, but there were few other matches in centrality rank-order. In sum, there were considerable similarities in network structure, the presence and sign of individual edges, and the most central symptom within and across internalizing symptom networks estimated from nonclinical samples, but global metrics suggested network structure and symptom centrality had weak to moderate generalizability from nonclinical to clinical samples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Individual differences in sensitivity to unpredictable threat may be a critical mechanism for internalizing psychopathology phenotypes. The present study examined whether the startle probe-elicited N100 and P300 during unpredictable threat - two event-related potentials indexing early and elaborative attentional processing of unpredictable threat - may be endophenotypes for internalizing psychopathology, including fear and distress/misery disorders and intolerance of uncertainty (IU), a clinical trait that is transdiagnostically associated with internalizing disorders. A large sample of adult siblings (N = 375) completed the no, predictable, and unpredictable threat task, during which the N100 and P300 were recorded. Relative to the no threat condition, N100 was more strongly enhanced in anticipation of unpredictable than predictable threat while P300 was suppressed to both predictable and unpredictable threat. While neither N100 enhancement nor P300 suppression to unpredictable threat was associated with fear or distress/misery disorders, they were negatively linked to inhibitory IU (a facet of IU). Thus, individuals high in inhibitory IU showed reduced attentional engagement with the threatening context when it was unpredictable. Further, N100 enhancement and, to a lesser degree, P300 suppression to unpredictable threat showed familial aggregation - a key criterion for determining whether a biomarker is an endophenotype. In sum, N100 enhancement and P300 suppression to unpredictable threat may be endophenotypes for dimensional measures of internalizing psychopathology.

Although research has found that life stress is associated with reward-related brain activity, few studies have examined how cumulative stressors occurring over the entire lifetime affect reward processing during adolescence.To address this issue, we investigated how lifetime stressor exposure related to reward processing, indexed by the reward positivity, in 240 adolescent girls between ages 8 and 14 years (mean age = 12.4). Participants were followed for 2 years. They completed a reward task at baseline and follow-up and the Stress and Adversity Inventory at follow-up.As hypothesized, greater lifetime stressor exposure was related to a blunted reward positivity at the follow-up session while controlling for baseline age, baseline reward positivity, and time between assessments. Furthermore, this association was evident for acute but not chronic lifetime stressors.These data suggest that the development of adaptive reward processing may be adversely affected by experiencing major life stressors. The results may thus have implications for understanding how stressors increase risk for psychopathology, such as major depressive disorder.

Both a hypoactive reward system and maternal depression are associated with the onset of Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in youth. Recent research indicates that blunted reward processing and maternal history of depression may interact to predict increases in depressive symptoms, however, the role of specific maternal depressive symptoms has not been examined. The current study investigated whether maternal depressive symptoms, history of MDD, and suicidal thoughts and/or behaviors (STBs) might lead to prospective increases in depressive symptoms one year later in the context of hypoactive reward processing. In a sample (N = 212) of 8 to 14-year-old girls, we assessed depressive symptoms in youth at baseline and follow up, while reward processing was measured using the Reward Positivity (RewP) event-related brain potential. Maternal STBs, current depressive symptoms, and history of maternal MDD were assessed at baseline. The results indicated that only girls with a blunted RewP and maternal STBs exhibited increased depressive symptoms one year later. These results were not evident when maternal depressive symptoms or maternal history of MDD was examined as the moderator. Overall, the current study provides evidence that maternal STBs uniquely impact youth with blunted reward processing.

Event-related potential (ERP) measures of reward- and error-related brain activity have emerged as potential biomarkers of risk for the development of psychopathology. However, the psychometric properties of reward- and error-related brain activity have been primarily investigated in adolescents and adults. It is critical to also establish the reliability of ERPs in younger children, particularly if they are used as individual difference measures of risk during key developmental periods. The present study examined the reliability of the reward positivity (RewP) and error-related negativity (ERN) among 80 children (M(age) = 6.9 years-old; 50% female). Participants completed the doors, flanker, and go/no-go tasks twice, separated by approximately 8 months, while electroencephalography (EEG) was recorded. Results indicated that the RewP demonstrated strong internal consistency and test-retest reliability. The ERN also demonstrated strong internal consistency, but test-retest reliability was only significant for the ERN measured during the flanker task and not the go/no-go task. These results are largely consistent with reported psychometric properties of reward- and error related ERPs in adolescents and adults, suggesting that the ERN and RewP may be appropriate biomarkers of individual differences in populations ranging from early childhood to adulthood.

Despite evidence suggesting differences in early event-related potential (ERP) responses to social emotional stimuli, little is known about later stage ERP contributions to social emotional processing in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Adults with and without ASD completed a facial emotion recognition task involving stimuli that varied by emotional intensity while electroencephalograms were recorded. Principal components analysis was used to examine P300 and late positive potential (LPP) modulation by emotional intensity. Results indicated that greater ASD symptomatology evinced heightened P300 to high relative to low intensity faces, then heightened LPP to low relative to high intensity faces. Findings suggest that adults with greater ASD symptomatology may demonstrate a lag in engagement in elaborative processing of low intensity faces.

Blunted reward processing both characterizes major depressive disorder and predicts increases in depressive symptoms. However, little is known about the interaction between blunted reward processing and other risk factors in relation to increases in depressive symptoms. Stressful life events and sleep problems are prominent risk factors that contribute to the etiopathogenesis of depression and have been linked to reward dysfunction; these factors may interact with reward dysfunction to predict increased depressive symptoms. In a large sample of 8 to 14 year-old adolescent girls, the current study examined how blunted reward processing, stressful life events, and sleep problems at baseline interacted to predict increases in depressive symptoms one year later. Reward processing was indexed by the reward positivity (RewP), an event-related potential elicited during a simple monetary reward paradigm (i.e. Doors task). Two-way interactions confirmed that a blunted RewP predicted increased depressive symptoms at: a) high levels of stress but not average or low levels of stress; and b) high and average levels of sleep problems but not low levels of sleep problems. Finally, a three-way interaction confirmed that a blunted RewP predicted increased depressive symptoms at high levels of stress and sleep problems but not average or low levels of stress and sleep problems. Thus, adolescents characterized by low reward response (i.e., blunted RewP) were at an increased risk of developing depressive symptoms if they experienced increased stressful life events or sleep problems; moreover, risk was greatest among adolescents characterized by all three.

In the current study, we examined how latent profiles reflecting maternal neural response to infant emotional expressions predict observed parenting behavior. Participants included 86 mothers of infants. Maternal sensitivity was coded from video-recorded distress and play interactions; mothers' event-related potentials (ERPs) to child emotional expressions were measured from EEG activity recorded during a categorization task. Latent profile analysis of mothers' P200 and late positive potential (LPP) responses to crying and laughing child expressions identified three latent profiles, characterized by enhanced or attenuated responses to crying and laughing expressions at early and late stages of processing. Mothers' probability of being assigned to the "attenuated to distress" profile, characterized by undifferentiated early and late response to infant emotional expressions, was associated with reduced maternal sensitivity. Probability of being assigned to this profile was also correlated with sociodemographic risk. Profiles of maternal neural response to infant emotional expressions may enhance our understanding of the phenomenology of insensitive caregiving.

There are reports of increases in levels of internalizing psychopathology during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, these studies presume that measurement properties of these constructs remained unchanged from before the pandemic. In this study, we examined longitudinal measurement invariance of assessments of depression, anxiety, and intolerance of uncertainty (IU) in adolescents and young adults from ongoing longitudinal studies. We found consistent support for configural and metric invariance across all constructs, but scalar invariance was unsupported for depression and IU. Thus, it is necessary to interpret pandemic-associated mean-level changes in depression and IU cautiously. In contrast, mean-level comparisons of panic, generalized, and social anxiety symptoms were not compromised. These findings are limited to the specific measures examined and the developmental period of the sample. We acknowledge that there is tremendous distress accompanying disruptions due to the COVID-19 outbreak. However, for some instruments, comparisons of symptom levels before and during the pandemic may be limited.

Parenting styles play a critical role in child well-being, yet the neural bases of parenting behaviors remain nebulous. Understanding the neural processes associated with parenting styles can both clarify etiological mechanisms underlying parenting behaviors and point us toward new targets for intervention. A novel electrocortical biomarker called the observational reward positivity (oRewP) that occurs in response to observing another receive a reward has been linked to self-reported authoritarian parenting behavior. The current study sought to replicate associations between the oRewP and self-reported and observationally-coded parenting in a sample of mothers selected to be at elevated risk for problematic parenting. Self-reported authoritarian parenting was associated with observationally-coded problematic discipline, while no other self-reported parenting scales were associated with observationally-coded scores. We replicated the previously reported association between a blunted oRewP and increased self-reported authoritarian parenting. We additionally found that an attenuated oRewP was associated with greater permissive parenting, and that only the relationship with permissive parenting was conserved after adjusting for other parenting styles and other relevant covariates. We did not find significant associations between the oRewP and observationally-coded parenting. The current findings suggest that the neural process indexed by the oRewP are relevant to parenting behavior. Further research is needed to better understand the discrepancy between self-reported and observed parenting.

BackgroundThe coronavirus [coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)] pandemic has introduced extraordinary life changes and stress, particularly in adolescents and young adults. Initial reports suggest that depression and anxiety are elevated during COVID-19, but no prior study has explored changes at the within-person level. The current study explored changes in depression and anxiety symptoms from before the pandemic to soon after it first peaked in Spring 2020 in a sample of adolescents and young adults (N = 451) living in Long Island, New York, an early epicenter of COVID-19 in the U.S.MethodsDepression (Children's Depression Inventory) and anxiety symptoms (Screen for Child Anxiety Related Symptoms) were assessed between December 2014 and July 2019, and, along with COVID-19 experiences, symptoms were re-assessed between March 27th and May 15th, 2020.ResultsAcross participants and independent of age, there were increased generalized anxiety and social anxiety symptoms. In females, there were also increased depression and panic/somatic symptoms. Multivariable linear regression indicated that greater COVID-19 school concerns were uniquely associated with increased depression symptoms. Greater COVID-19 home confinement concerns were uniquely associated with increased generalized anxiety symptoms, and decreased social anxiety symptoms, respectively.ConclusionsAdolescents and young adults at an early epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic in the U.S. experienced increased depression and anxiety symptoms, particularly amongst females. School and home confinement concerns related to the pandemic were independently associated with changes in symptoms. Overall, this report suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic is having multifarious adverse effects on the mental health of youth.

Depressive disorders are common and impairing and are currently the leading contributor to the global disease burden. Over the past decade, dysfunction in neural processing of rewards has emerged as one of the most promising biological markers for the development of depressive disorders due to the role of reward processing in reward learning and in emotions central to depressive disorders. Despite this, depressive disorders are still defined by self-reported symptoms and behavior, and research has begun to focus on identifying the pathophysiology of the disorder. The current chapter reviews relevant theory implicating reward-processing deficits in depressive disorders. We also review select behavioral, electroencephalography, and functional magnetic resonance imaging studies that investigate the association between reward-processing deficits and depression risk, symptoms, and disorders, both concurrently and prospectively. An overview of a more recent line of research examining the influence of stressful life events on the link between atypical reward processing and depression is also provided. Finally, we make suggestions for future directions in research investigating the role of reward processing in depressive disorders.

Initial reports suggest that mental health problems were elevated early in the COVID-19 pandemic. However, few studies have followed-up participants as the pandemic evolved and examined both between and within person predictors of symptom trajectories. In the current study, adolescents and young adults (N=532) in New York were surveyed monthly between March 27th and July 14th, 2020, a period spanning the first peak and subsequent decline in COVID-19 infection rates in the region. Surveys assessed symptoms of depression and anxiety using the Child Depression Inventory and the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders, as well as experiences related to the pandemic. Multilevel growth modeling indicated that symptoms of depression and anxiety peaked around late April/early May and then decreased through May-July. Some pandemic experiences followed a similar quadratic trajectory, while others decreased linearly across the study. Specific relationships emerged between some types of pandemic experiences and depression and anxiety symptoms. While symptoms of depression and anxiety in youth may have been elevated early in the pandemic, these findings suggest they subsided across Spring-Summer of 2020, with higher levels of both corresponding to a period of peak infection rates and decreases paralleling the decline in pandemic experiences and COVID-19 infection rates.

Background: First onsets of depression are especially common in adolescent females and often develop into chronic/recurrent illness. Surprisingly few studies have comprehensively evaluated multiple domains of etiologically-informative risk factors for first onset in adolescents from the community. We investigated whether clinical, cognitive, personality, interpersonal, and biological risk factors prospectively predict a first onset of depressive disorder (DD), and of DD with a chronic/recurrent course, in a community sample of adolescent girls. Methods: 479 girls (13.5–15.5 years) with no history of DD completed baseline assessments of risk factors and five diagnostic assessments over 3 years. Baseline measures were analyzed separately and jointly to prospectively predict first-onset DD and first-onset chronic/recurrent DD. Results: Most risk factors predicted first-onset DD (n = 93), including depressive symptoms, anxiety disorders, rumination, personality traits, blunted neural response (late positive potential [LPP]) to unpleasant pictures, peer victimization, parental criticism, and parental mood disorder. Depressive symptoms, rumination, parental mood disorder, and parental criticism were independently associated with first onsets. Nearly all measures, including a blunted neural response to rewards (reward positivity [RewP]), also predicted first-onset chronic/recurrent DD (n = 52), with depressive symptoms, low extraversion, poor peer relationships, and blunted RewP emerging as independent risk factors. Limitations: This study focused on adolescent females and therefore does not provide information on males. Conclusions: Multiple domains of risk factors in early adolescence are prospectively associated with first-onset DD and chronic/recurrent DD. A smaller subset of risk factors uniquely contributing to first onsets may represent core vulnerabilities for adolescent-onset depression and promising prevention targets.

Background Life events and reward-system functioning contribute to resilience and risk for depression. However, interactions between life events and neural responses to reward and loss have not been previously investigated in relation to depression symptoms in child and adolescent populations. Methods An unselected sample (N = 130) of 8- to 14-year-old girls (mean = 12.6 years) completed the Child Depression Inventory and a functional magnetic resonance imaging guessing task in which they won or lost money on each trial. Parents completed a measure of life events experienced by the child. Life events were separated by positive versus negative and whether they were likely related or unrelated to the daughter’s behavior (i.e., dependent vs. independent, respectively). Multiple regressions tested whether the interaction between ventral striatal (VS) response to wins or losses and recent life events were associated with child-reported depressive symptoms. Results A greater number of dependent positive life events related to decreased total depression symptoms when VS response to wins was robust. Conversely, a greater number of independent negative life events related to increased negative mood depression symptoms when VS response to losses was robust; this relationship was in the opposite direction when VS response to loss was low. Conclusions VS response to reward and loss were independent moderators of the relationship between recent life events (positive and negative, respectively) and depressive symptoms. Findings suggest that targeting neural responses (i.e., increasing responses to winning or decreasing responses to losing) may be important for both improving resilience and reducing risk in different environmental contexts.

OBJECTIVE: An increased neural response to making mistakes has emerged as a potential biomarker of anxiety across development. The error-related negativity is an event-related potential elicited when people make mistakes on simple laboratory-based reaction time tasks that has been associated with risk for anxiety. The present study examined whether the error-related negativity prospectively predicted the first onset of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) over 1.5 years in adolescent girls. METHODS: The sample included 457 girls between the ages of 13.5 and 15.5 years, with no history of GAD. At baseline, the error-related negativity was measured using a flankers task. Psychiatric history of the adolescent and biological parent were assessed with diagnostic interviews, and the adolescent completed a self-report questionnaire regarding anxiety symptoms. Approximately 1.5 years later, adolescents completed the same interview. RESULTS: An increased neural response to errors at baseline predicted first-onset GAD over 1.5 years. The error-related negativity was a significant predictor independent of other prominent risk factors, including baseline anxiety and depression symptoms and parental lifetime psychiatric history. Jointly the error-related negativity and social anxiety symptoms provided the greatest power for predicting first-onset GAD. CONCLUSIONS: The current study provides evidence for the utility of the error-related negativity as a biomarker of risk for GAD during a key developmental period.

Affective science research on reward processing has primarily focused on monetary rewards. There has been a growing interest in evaluating the neural basis of social decision-making and reward processing. The present study employed a within-subject design and compared the reward positivity (RewP), an event-related potential component that is present following favorable feedback and absent or reduced following unfavorable feedback, during monetary and social reward tasks. Specifically, 114 participants (75 females) completed a monetary reward task and a novel social reward task that were matched on trial structure, timing, and feedback stimuli in a counterbalanced order. Results indicated that the monetary and social RewP were of similar magnitude, positively correlated and demonstrated comparable psychometric properties, including reliability and dependability. Across both the monetary and social tasks, women demonstrated a greater RewP compared with men. This study provides a novel methodological approach toward examining the electrocortical response to social reward that is comparable to monetary reward.

The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted young adults across a number of different domains. It is critical to establish the degree to which the COVID-19 pandemic has affected mental health and identify predictors of poor outcomes. Neuroticism and (low) respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) are risk factors of internalizing disorders that might predict increased psychopathology symptoms. The present study included 222 undergraduate students from [name removed] in Long Island, NY. Before the COVID-19 pandemic, participants completed self-report measures of neuroticism and internalizing symptoms and an electrocardiogram. Between April 15th to May 30th, 2020, participants again completed the measure of internalizing symptoms and a questionnaire about COVID-19 experiences. The COVID-19 pandemic was associated with increased distress, fear/obsessions, and (low) positive mood symptoms. There was a Neuroticism x RSA interaction in relation to distress symptoms, such that greater pre-COVID-19 neuroticism was associated with increased distress symptoms, but only in the context of low RSA. These findings suggest the COVID-19 pandemic has contributed to increased internalizing symptoms in young adults, and individuals with specific personality and autonomic risk factors may be at heightened risk for developing psychopathology.

Anticipated emotional category and temporal predictability are key characteristics that have both been shown to impact psychophysiological indices of defensive motivation (e.g., the startle reflex). To date, research has primarily examined these features in isolation, and it is unclear whether they have additive or interactive effects on defensive motivation. In the present study, the startle reflex was measured in anticipation of low arousal neutral, moderate arousal pleasant, and high arousal unpleasant pictures that were presented with either predictable or unpredictable timing. Linear mixed-effects modeling was conducted to examine startle magnitude across time, and the intercept at the beginning and end of the task. Across the entire task, the anticipation of temporally unpredictable (relative to predictable) pictures and emotional (relative to neutral) pictures potentiated startle magnitude, but there was no interaction between the two features. However, examination of the intercept at the beginning of the task indicated a Predictability by Emotional Category interaction, such that temporal unpredictability enhanced startle potentiation in anticipation of unpleasant pictures only. Examination of the intercept at the end of the task indicated that the effects of predictability and emotional category on startle magnitude were largely diminished. The present study replicates previous reports demonstrating that emotional category and temporal predictability impact the startle reflex, and provides novel evidence suggesting an interactive effect on defensive motivation at the beginning of the task. This study also highlights the importance of examining the time course of the startle reflex.

Reduced habituation to aversive stimuli has been observed during adolescence and may reflect an underlying mechanism of vulnerability for anxiety disorders. This study examined the startle reflex during a fear-learning task in 54 8-14-year-old girls. We examined the relationship between mean startle, startle habituation, pubertal development, and two measures linked to risk for anxiety: behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and the error-related negativity (ERN). Puberty, BIS, and the ERN were unrelated to mean startle; however, each measure modulated startle habituation. Greater pubertal development was associated with reduced startle habituation across the CS+ and CS-. Higher BIS related to a larger ERN, and both were associated with reduced startle habituation specifically to the CS+. All effects were independent of each other. Findings suggest that puberty alters habituation of defense system activation to both threat and safety cues, and this is independent of risk for anxiety, which uniquely impacts habituation to threat cues.

Predictability is an important characteristic of threat that impacts defensive motivation and attentional engagement. Supporting research has primarily focused on actual threat (e.g., shocks), and it is unclear whether the predictability of less intense threat (e.g., unpleasant pictures) similarly affects motivation and attention. The present study utilized a within-subject design and examined defensive motivation (startle reflex and self-reported anxiety) and attention (probe N100 and P300) in anticipation of shocks and unpleasant pictures during a no, predictable, and unpredictable threat task. This study also examined the impact of predictability on the P300 to shocks and late positive potential (LPP) to unpleasant pictures. The startle reflex and self-reported anxiety were increased in anticipation of both types of threat relative to no threat. Furthermore, startle potentiation in anticipation of unpredictable threat was greater for shocks compared to unpleasant pictures, but there was no difference for predictable threat. The probe N100 was enhanced in anticipation of unpredictable threat relative to predictable threat and no threat, and the probe P300 was suppressed in anticipation of predictable and unpredictable threat relative to no threat. These effects did not differ between the shock and unpleasant picture trials. Finally, the P300 and early LPP component were increased in response to unpredictable relative to predictable shocks and unpleasant pictures, respectively. The present study suggests that the unpredictability of unpleasant pictures increases defensive motivation, but to a lesser degree relative to actual threat. Moreover, unpredictability enhances attentional engagement in anticipation of, and in reaction to, both types of threat.

Social feedback is highly salient and particularly relevant when investigating the pathophysiology of depression and social anxiety. A bourgeoning body of research has demonstrated an association between reward-related delta activity and psychopathology. However, a critical limitation is that these findings are derived from neural responses to monetary feedback, and time-frequency representation of social feedback remains unexplored. In addition, no study has isolated the differential/unique associations of positive valence and the intrinsic rewarding experience of being correct with reward-related neural activity. In the present study, 204 participants underwent electroencephalography (EEG) while they completed a novel paradigm comprised of monetary and social feedback tasks that were matched in trial structure, timing, and feedback stimuli. For each task, participants were instructed to correctly identify one of two doors that would provide positive feedback (monetary win behind the door) or one of two peers who would provide positive feedback (social like); or to correctly identify the door or peer that would provide negative feedback (money loss behind the door/social dislike). A principal component analysis (PCA) was conducted on the time-frequency data and revealed two factors in the delta and one factor in the theta frequency ranges. Results indicated that the lower-frequency delta factor (delta-low) was greater to correct vs. incorrect feedback, more so for social vs. monetary tasks, while the higher-frequency delta factor (delta-high) was greater to correct vs. incorrect feedback for social like, social dislike, and monetary win tasks, but not the monetary loss task. In contrast, the theta factor was greater to incorrect relative to correct feedback in negative valence (lose money/social dislike) but not positive valence (win money/social like) tasks. Furthermore, greater delta-high activity for social feedback was associated with greater social anxiety symptoms, whereas lesser delta-high activity for social feedback was associated with greater depressive symptoms. Finally, greater theta activity to monetary feedback was associated with greater depressive symptoms. The present study provides novel evidence demonstrating unique social vs. monetary feedback-related delta and theta activity, and differential associations between delta activity with depression and social anxiety symptoms. These findings highlight the importance of investigating feedback-related neural responses in the social domain.

Blunted reward sensitivity and life stress are each depressogenic. Additionally, individuals with clinical and psychosocial vulnerabilities are prone to experience or evoke dependent life stressors (e.g., interpersonal conflict) that, in turn, increase depression risk. However, no previous study has investigated the role of neural vulnerability factors in generating life stress. Therefore, the current study investigated whether a neural measure of reward sensitivity prospectively predicts the generation of life stress, which in turn mediates effects of these neural processes on subsequent depression. Participants were 467 never-depressed adolescent girls. Using event-related potentials, neural sensitivity to the difference between monetary reward and loss (the Reward Positivity [RewP]) was assessed at baseline. Negative life events were assessed twice via interview over the ensuing 18 months, yielding an index of total life stress over the follow-up period. A self-report dimensional measure of depression symptoms was administered at baseline and follow-up. After accounting for baseline age, depression, and race, a blunted RewP predicted greater dependent, but not independent, life stress over the follow-up. Mediation analyses revealed a significant indirect effect of the RewP on follow-up depression through dependent, but not independent, life stress. Our results suggest that neural processing reward and loss plays a crucial role in depressogenic stress generation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Little is known about the effect of natural disasters on children's neural development. Additionally, despite evidence that stress and parenting may both influence the development of neural systems underlying reward and threat processing, few studies have brought together these areas of research. The current investigation examined the effect of parenting styles and hurricane-related stress on the development of neural reactivity to reward and threat in children. Approximately 8 months before and 9 months after Hurricane Sandy, 74 children experiencing high and low levels of hurricane-related stress completed tasks that elicited the reward positivity and error-related negativity, event-related potentials indexing sensitivity to reward and threat, respectively. At the post-Hurricane assessment, children completed a self-report questionnaire to measure promotion- and prevention-focused parenting styles. Among children exposed to high levels of hurricane-related stress, lower levels of promotion-focused, but not prevention-focused, parenting were associated with a reduced post-Sandy reward positivity. In addition, in children with high stress exposure, greater prevention-focused, but not promotion-focused, parenting was associated with a larger error-related negativity after Hurricane Sandy. These findings highlight the need to consider contextual variables such as parenting when examining how exposure to stress alters the development of neural reactivity to reward and threat in children.

The menstrual cycle is known to impact mood and cognitive function and has been shown to lead to variability in symptoms of obsessive-compulsive disorders and anxiety. Using a within-subject design, the present study examined ovarian hormones, the error-related negativity (ERN), and self-reported checking symptoms in both the mid-follicular and mid-luteal phases of the menstrual cycle. ERN amplitude and checking symptom severity did not vary between the follicular and luteal phases. However, a more negative ERN was associated with greater checking symptoms in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle, even when controlling for ERN amplitude in the follicular phase. Moreover, changes in checking symptoms between phases were associated with phase-related changes in the ERN. Finally, a significant mediation model was found such that the ERN measured in the luteal phase mediated the association between progesterone in the luteal phase and checking symptoms in the luteal phase. Collectively, the present findings suggest that levels of progesterone in the luteal phase could impact checking symptoms by modulating response monitoring and sensitivity to errors, and that fluctuation in the ERN between menstrual cycle phases may play an important role in the expression of anxious and obsessive-compulsive symptoms.

The no, predictable, and unpredictable threat (NPU-threat) task is an experimental paradigm that delineates the anticipation of predictable vs. unpredictable threat. The current literature suggests that heightened defensive motivation in anticipation of unpredictable threat is associated with anxiety disorders and increased symptoms. Few investigations have examined whether a heightened response to actual threat is also associated with anxiety-related phenomenology. The present study examined the relationship between the tactile P300 to shock delivery during the NPU-threat task and individual differences in anxiety symptoms, intolerance of uncertainty, and neuroticism. Overall, the tactile P300 was enhanced in response to unpredictable shocks relative to predictable shocks. Greater tactile P300 enhancement to unpredictable shocks was associated with greater anxiety symptoms, intolerance of uncertainty, and neuroticism. The present study suggests that temporal unpredictability enhances attentional engagement to threat, which is greater in individuals characterized by narrow and broad anxiety constructs.

Individuals with schizophrenia evidence impaired emotional functioning. Abnormal amygdala activity has been identified as an etiological factor underlying affective impairment in this population, but the exact nature remains unclear. The current study utilized psychophysiological interaction analyses to examine functional connectivity between the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) during an emotion perception task. Participants with schizophrenia (SZ) and healthy controls (HC) viewed and rated positive, negative, and neutral images while undergoing functional neuroimaging. Results revealed a significant group difference in right amygdala-mPFC connectivity during perception of negative versus neutral images. Specifically, HC participants demonstrated positive functional coupling between the amygdala and mPFC, consistent with co-active processing of salient information. In contrast, SZ participants evidenced negative functional coupling, consistent with top-down inhibition of the amygdala by the mPFC. A significant positive correlation between connectivity strength during negative image perception and clinician-rated social functioning was also observed in SZ participants, such that weaker right amygdala-mPFC coupling during negative compared to neutral image perception was associated with poorer social functioning. Overall, results suggest that emotional dysfunction and associated deficits in functional outcome in schizophrenia may relate to abnormal interactions between the amygdala and mPFC during perception of emotional stimuli. This study adds to the growing literature on abnormal functional connections in schizophrenia and supports the functional disconnection hypothesis of schizophrenia.