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Aim This exploratory post hoc analysis of a randomized, double‐blind (DB), multicentre, non‐inferiority study (NCT01515423) evaluated the effects of the long‐acting injectable antipsychotic therapies once‐monthly paliperidone palmitate (PP1M) and once‐every‐3‐months paliperidone palmitate (PP3M) on symptom severity and functional remission in patients with schizophrenia with differing durations of illness (≤5, 6‐10 and >10 years). Methods Endpoints included Personal and Social Performance (PSP) scale and Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) total scores during the DB phase (DB baseline and DB endpoint) and the proportion of patients meeting PSP or PANSS remission criteria at any time during the open‐label (OL) or DB phases that were maintained for ≥3, ≥6, ≥9 or ≥12 months. Results In both the OL and DB phases, significant improvements in PSP scale and PANSS scores were observed from baseline in all duration‐of‐illness groups, with significantly greater improvements observed in the ≤5‐year and 6‐10‐year groups compared with the >10‐year group. The proportion of patients who maintained PSP or PANSS remission criteria for ≥3, ≥6, ≥9 and ≥12 months was higher in the ≤5‐year and 6‐10‐year groups than in the >10‐year group. Safety profiles were similar across duration‐of‐illness groups in the DB phase. Conclusions Symptomatic and functional improvements were observed with PP1M/PP3M in patients with differing durations of schizophrenia, but the magnitude of the effects was greater in those with early illness vs chronic illness. These findings advocate implementation of PP1M and PP3M in all stages of schizophrenia, including early illness.

BACKGROUND Schizophrenia is a lifelong illness that requires long-term treatment and caregiving. Family psychoeducation (FP) has been shown to lessen caregiver burden, improve caregiver functioning, and improve outcomes in patients. However, the impact of FP delivered specifically to caregivers on patient outcomes has not been well explored, particularly for early schizophrenia. Furthermore, there is a lack of research examining the benefits of telehealth-based psychoeducation for caregivers on either patient or caregiver outcomes. OBJECTIVE The Family Intervention in Recent-Onset Schizophrenia Treatment (FIRST) study is a randomized controlled trial of patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders and their caregivers, which is designed to evaluate the effect of telehealth-based, caregiver-focused, study-provided psychoeducation versus usual care (UC) on patient treatment failure (TF). The impact of study-provided psychoeducation on caregiver burden is also investigated. METHODS Eligible patients and their designated caregivers were randomly assigned to either the study-provided psychoeducation (≤16 sessions of telehealth-based psychoeducation over 6 months) or UC group, stratified by antipsychotic treatment (paliperidone palmitate or oral antipsychotic). The major TF events (ie, psychiatric hospitalization or intervention, arrest or incarceration, and suicide attempts) were assessed at 3, 6, and 12 months after baseline. A proportional means model using mean cumulative function was used to assess between-group differences in the mean cumulative number of TF events over 12 months. Caregiver burden was assessed using the Involvement Evaluation Questionnaire and 12-item Short Form Health Survey. RESULTS A total of 148 pairs of participants were enrolled in the study, of whom 96 (64.9%) patients and 94 (63.5%) caregivers completed the 12-month follow-up. The mean number of sessions in the study-provided psychoeducation group was 7.7 (SD 5.9). No differences were observed between the study-provided psychoeducation and UC groups in patient outcomes (rates of TF: 70% vs 67%; P=.90) or measures of caregiver burden (assessment of caregiver distress and physical and mental health). However, post hoc analyses revealed lower relapse rates in patients who received paliperidone palmitate than in those who received oral antipsychotics at all time points. Although the FIRST study did not meet the primary end point, several key lessons were identified to inform future caregiver-focused, telehealth-based FP interventions. Lack of study-provided psychoeducation, focus on caregiver-only intervention, difficulties with enrollment, and caregiver–treatment team coordination may have affected the outcomes of the FIRST study. CONCLUSIONS Key insights from the FIRST study suggest the potential importance of supporting sufficient caregiver engagement; communication between clinicians, patients, and family members regarding treatment plans; and solidifying the relationship between clinicians providing psychoeducation to the caregiver and patient treatment team. CLINICALTRIAL ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02600741; http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02600741

Background Schizophrenia is a lifelong illness that requires long-term treatment and caregiving. Family psychoeducation (FP) has been shown to lessen caregiver burden, improve caregiver functioning, and improve outcomes in patients. However, the impact of FP delivered specifically to caregivers on patient outcomes has not been well explored, particularly for early schizophrenia. Furthermore, there is a lack of research examining the benefits of telehealth-based psychoeducation for caregivers on either patient or caregiver outcomes. Objective The Family Intervention in Recent-Onset Schizophrenia Treatment (FIRST) study is a randomized controlled trial of patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders and their caregivers, which is designed to evaluate the effect of telehealth-based, caregiver-focused, study-provided psychoeducation versus usual care (UC) on patient treatment failure (TF). The impact of study-provided psychoeducation on caregiver burden is also investigated. Methods Eligible patients and their designated caregivers were randomly assigned to either the study-provided psychoeducation (≤16 sessions of telehealth-based psychoeducation over 6 months) or UC group, stratified by antipsychotic treatment (paliperidone palmitate or oral antipsychotic). The major TF events (ie, psychiatric hospitalization or intervention, arrest or incarceration, and suicide attempts) were assessed at 3, 6, and 12 months after baseline. A proportional means model using mean cumulative function was used to assess between-group differences in the mean cumulative number of TF events over 12 months. Caregiver burden was assessed using the Involvement Evaluation Questionnaire and 12-item Short Form Health Survey. Results A total of 148 pairs of participants were enrolled in the study, of whom 96 (64.9%) patients and 94 (63.5%) caregivers completed the 12-month follow-up. The mean number of sessions in the study-provided psychoeducation group was 7.7 (SD 5.9). No differences were observed between the study-provided psychoeducation and UC groups in patient outcomes (rates of TF: 70% vs 67%; P=.90) or measures of caregiver burden (assessment of caregiver distress and physical and mental health). However, post hoc analyses revealed lower relapse rates in patients who received paliperidone palmitate than in those who received oral antipsychotics at all time points. Although the FIRST study did not meet the primary end point, several key lessons were identified to inform future caregiver-focused, telehealth-based FP interventions. Lack of study-provided psychoeducation, focus on caregiver-only intervention, difficulties with enrollment, and caregiver–treatment team coordination may have affected the outcomes of the FIRST study. Conclusions Key insights from the FIRST study suggest the potential importance of supporting sufficient caregiver engagement; communication between clinicians, patients, and family members regarding treatment plans; and solidifying the relationship between clinicians providing psychoeducation to the caregiver and patient treatment team. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02600741; http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02600741

Schizophrenia is a chronic, serious mental illness (SMI) that affects approximately 1.1% of the population aged ≥18 years. There are approximately 8.4 million caregivers of US adults with SMI. Caregivers can provide vital support, but the burden and distress caused by recurrent SMI symptomatology are barriers to effective caregiving. The aim of this analysis is to describe the demographic and baseline characteristics of caregivers and patients with recent-onset schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, or schizophreniform disorders enrolled in the Family Intervention in Recent-Onset Schizophrenia Treatment (FIRST) study (NCT02600741) and evaluate the correlation between caregiver burden and severity of patient illness. FIRST is a 12-month, ongoing, prospective, randomized study to evaluate the effect of a caregiver-directed psychosocial intervention on outcomes in patients with recent-onset schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder, or schizophreniform disorders receiving paliperidone palmitate (PP) or oral antipsychotic treatment (OAT). The caregivers were randomized into 2 study groups (usual caregiver support or study-provided caregiver-directed psychosocial intervention) within strata defined by the type of antipsychotic medication (PP or OAT) that patients were prescribed by their treating physicians. The patients were assessed for symptom severity (CGI-S) and illness management and recovery. The caregivers were assessed for caregiver burden (IEQ), general health (SF-12), and health-care resource utilization. The study is ongoing and the current analysis is based on interim data from 52 patient–caregiver pairs. Patients were predominantly male (84.6%), were white (57.6%), black (36.5%), and had a mean age of 25.3 years; 9.6% were Hispanic. Most (88.5%) patients lived at home with family or friends. The average CGI-S score for patients receiving PP was 4.94 and for patients receiving OAT was 3.89. Caregivers were predominantly female (76.9%), were mostly parents (86.5%), and had a mean age of 52.4 years. There was a moderate yet significant correlation between the IEQ total score and patients’ CGI-S score at baseline ( = .36, = .011). The correlation between the total IEQ score and the patient’s or caregiver’s age, gender, and race was not significant. The interim analysis of the baseline data showed that greater severity of patient illness is correlated with higher caregiver burden.Reference 1. National Alliance for Caregiving. www.caregiving.org. 2016. Accessed October 11, 2016.

Postmortem and in vivo studies of schizophrenia frequently reveal reduced cortical volume, but the underlying cellular abnormalities are incompletely defined. One influential hypothesis, especially investigated in Brodmann’s area 9 of prefrontal cortex, is that the number of neurons is normal, and the volume change is caused by reduction of the surrounding neuropil. However, studies have differed on whether the cortex has the increased neuron density that is predicted by this hypothesis. In a recent study of bilateral planum temporale (PT), we reported smaller volume and width of the outer cortex (layers I-III), especially in the left hemisphere, among subjects with schizophrenia. In the present study, we measured neuron density and size in the same PT samples, and also in prefrontal area 9 of the same brains. In the PT, separate stereological measurements were made in layers II, IIIc, and VI, whereas area 9 was sampled in layer IIIb-c. In both cortical regions, there was no significant effect of schizophrenia on neuronal density or size. There was, nevertheless, a trend-level right>left hemispheric asymmetry of neuron density in the PT, which may partially explain the previously reported left>right asymmetry of cortical width. In schizophrenia, our findings suggest that closer packing of neurons may not always explain reduced cortical volume, and subtly decreased neuron number may be a contributing factor.

The anterior limb of the internal capsule (ALIC) is the major white matter tract providing reciprocal connections between the frontal cortex, striatum and thalamus. Mounting evidence suggests that this tract may be affected in schizophrenia, with brain imaging studies reporting reductions in white matter volume and density, changes in fractional anisotropy and reduced asymmetry. However, the molecular correlates of these deficits are currently unknown. The aim of this study was to identify alterations in protein and metabolite levels in the ALIC in schizophrenia. Samples were obtained post-mortem from individuals with schizophrenia (n=15) and non-psychiatric controls (n=13). Immunoreactivity for the myelin-associated protein myelin basic protein (MBP), and the axonal-associated proteins phosphorylated neurofilament and SNAP-25 was measured by enzyme-linked immunoadsorbent assay (ELISA). Metabolite concentrations were quantified by proton nuclear magnetic resonance ((1)H NMR) spectroscopy. Levels of myelin- or axonal-associated proteins did not differ between groups. Overall differences in metabolite concentrations were observed between the two groups (MANOVA F=2.685, p=0.036), with post-hoc tests revealing lower lactate (19%) and alanine (24%) levels in the schizophrenia group relative to controls. Observed changes in lactate and alanine levels indicate metabolic abnormalities within the ALIC in schizophrenia.

Background: Despite widespread policies of deinstitutionalization, a substantial number of patients with schizophrenia require continuous custodial care. The hospital records of such patients provide contemporaneous documentation of symptoms throughout the illness, permitting a longitudinal study of the course of symptoms. We sought to describe this course, and to determine the influences of sex, age of onset, and treatment on its evolution. Methods: Using the modified Diagnostic Evaluation After Death, we performed standardized chart reviews of 99 chronic inpatients who remained in state institutions through the 1960’s and 1970’s and subsequently died in those institutions. Data were available from the onset of illness until death. Results: We found significant decreases in positive symptoms and increases in negative symptoms over the course of the illness. Symptom patterns were analyzed by repeated measures ANOVA. Onset before age 25 was associated with greater numbers of negative symptoms at a given age (p = 0.05). Female sex was associated with greater numbers of positive symptoms (p = 0.04). The widespread introduction of neuroleptic drugs in the mid-1950’s did not affect the trends in symptom patterns. Conclusions: The lifetime course of schizophrenia in chronically institutionalized individuals is characterized by a decrease in positive symptoms and an increase in negative symptoms. Schizophrenia with earlier onset is associated with greater numbers of negative symptoms throughout life. In this sample of patients, chronically hospitalized until death, neuroleptic drugs failed to effect a persistent decrease in positive symptoms.

Golgi impregnation is unique in its ability to display the dendritic trees of large numbers of individual neurons. However, its reputation for inconsistency leaves many investigators reluctant to embrace this methodology, particularly for the study of formalin-fixed human brain tissue. After reviewing the literature, testing a variety of technical variations, and discussing the procedure with experienced practitioners, we have concluded that much of the unpredictability can be removed by matching the Golgi technique to the conditions that were used for fixation of the tissue. Briefly fixed tissues worked best with the rapid Golgi technique, which includes osmium during the initial chromation step, and with the Golgi-Cox method, which includes mercuric chloride during chromation. For tissues that have been fixed for several years or even for several decades, superior results are obtained with the Golgi-Kopsch technique, using multiple changes of a chromation solution that contains paraformaldehyde. In the Golgi-Kopsch technique, pH should be used to monitor the reduction of Cr6+ to Cr3+, which is a crucial determinant of successful chromation. With any Golgi technique, agitation throughout the impregnation helps to avoid precipitates and to improve the quality of impregnation. When the appropriate method is chosen, Golgi impregnation is a useful technique for the neuropathologist.

The Scales of Cognitive Impairment Rated From Institutional Records (SCIRFIR), a battery based on commonly used dementia rating instruments, was tested on the records of 26 chronically institutionalized, elderly schizophrenia patients, for the purpose of retrospectively evaluating the long-term course of cognitive change in schizophrenia and relating it to available autopsy materials. The inter-rater reliability of the component scales was high (Intraclass Correlations=0.78–0.96), the final item scores were comparable to ratings on living subjects, and Alzheimer-type neuropathological changes were associated with a markedly deteriorating course. The substantial potential of this method is discussed.

In vivo structural MRI studies in schizophrenia auditory cerebral cortex have reported smaller volumes and, less consistently, have reported altered hemispheric asymmetry of volumes. We used autopsy brains from 19 schizophrenia and 18 nonpsychiatric male subjects to measure the volume asymmetry of the planum temporal (PT). We then used the most recently autopsied 11 schizophrenia and 10 nonpsychiatric brains to measure the widths and fractional volumes of the upper (I-III) and lower (IV-VI) layers. Measurements of whole PT gray matter volumes did not show significant changes in schizophrenia. Nevertheless, laminar volume measurements revealed that the upper layers of the PT comprise a smaller fraction of the total cortex in schizophrenia than in nonpsychiatric brains. Subdivision of the PT showed that this change was especially prominent caudally, beyond Heschl's gyrus, whereas similar but less pronounced changes were found in the rostral PT and Heschl's gyrus. Complementary measures of laminar widths showed that the altered fractional volume in the caudal left PT was due mainly to approximately 8% thinner upper layers. However, the caudal right PT had a different profile, with thicker lower layers and comparatively unchanged upper layers. Thus, in the present study, laminar measurements provided a more sensitive method for detecting changes than measurement of whole PT volumes. Besides findings in schizophrenia, our cortical width measurements revealed normal hemispheric asymmetries consistent with previous reports. In schizophrenia, the thinner upper layers of the caudal PT suggest disrupted corticocortical processing, possibly affecting the multisensory integration and phonetic processing of this region.

Abnormalities of cerebral white matter, oligodendrocytes, and myelin have been observed in schizophrenia with in-vivo imaging and post-mortem biochemistry. White-matter abnormalities are also frequently associated with cognitive impairment in both healthy and diseased individuals, and cognitive dysfunction is an important component of schizophrenia. While many studies have documented these associations, only a handful have examined the role of white matter in cognitive function in schizophrenia. In this paper, we explore what is known about white-matter deficits in relation to schizophrenia, cognitive deficits, or both together, in order to generate a theoretical model for the role that compromise of white matter might play in producing cognitive impairment in schizophrenia.

We wished to test independently a previously reported loss of subicular microtubule-associated protein 2 (MAP2) in the brains of deceased individuals who had suffered from schizophrenia, and to determine whether there were any clinical characteristics attached to such a loss. Immunohistochemistry for MAP2 was examined in the hippocampal region from 94 psychiatric patients: 64 with a primary diagnosis of schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, 12 with a primary diagnosis of major depressive or bipolar disorders, and 18 with a primary diagnosis of dementia; and from 17 individuals without psychiatric disease. Lifelong symptomatology was evaluated with the modified Diagnostic Evaluation After Death. Subicular MAP2 immunoreactivity was prominently depressed in 20% of schizophrenia cases, 8% of mood disorder cases, 22% of dementia cases, and in no nonpsychiatric cases. Among dementia cases, those with loss of subicular MAP2 immunoreactivity displayed more subicular gliosis, while among the schizophrenia cases, there was no such association. Among schizophrenia subjects, loss of subicular MAP2 immunoreactivity was associated with fewer positive and negative symptoms over the course of the illness. Subicular MAP2 immunoreactivity is markedly diminished in a significant proportion of individuals chronically institutionalized for schizophrenia, and this does not represent a generalized destruction of subicular neurons. In contrast, among individuals institutionalized for dementia, loss of subicular MAP2 immunoreactivity is accompanied by gliosis. The loss of MAP2 immunoreactivity is associated with fewer clinical symptoms, suggesting that it may represent an adaptive response to schizophrenia. The chemical or structural abnormalities underlying decreased MAP2 immunoreactivity in schizophrenia remain to be determined.