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5. Contributors

Author

Błajet-Kosicka, Anna, primary, Benedict, Kaitlin, additional, Borrego, Luís Miguel, additional, Brandão, João, additional, Brandt, Mary E., additional, Brera, Carlo, additional, Clemons, Karl V., additional, Colicchia, Sonia, additional, de Almeida Paes, Rodrigo, additional, De Santis, Barbara, additional, Debegnach, Francesca, additional, Duquenne, Philippe, additional, Ferguson, Alesia, additional, Fu, Xi, additional, Gordon, Bari, additional, Grajewski, Jan, additional, Gregori, Emanuela, additional, Hagen, Ferry, additional, Harwood, Valerie J., additional, Hyvärinen, Anne, additional, Kosicki, Robert, additional, Ladeira, Carina, additional, López de Cerain, Adela, additional, Magri, Maria Chiara, additional, Mayer, Stefan, additional, Miano, Brunella, additional, Mota, Inês Andrade, additional, Nevalainen, Aino, additional, Oppliger, Anne, additional, Peraica, Maja, additional, Piecková, Elena, additional, Pinheiro, Ana Catarina, additional, Quindós-Andrés, Guillermo, additional, Richardson, Malcolm D., additional, Sabino, Raquel, additional, Samson, Robert A., additional, Solo-Gabriele, Helena, additional, Soricelli, Sabina, additional, Täubel, Martin, additional, Twarużek, Magdalena, additional, Veríssimo, Cristina, additional, Vettorazzi, Ariane, additional, Viegas, Carla, additional, and Zancopé Oliveira, Rosely Maria, additional

Published
2016
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10. Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) food supplements and hepatotoxicity: an integrated evaluation approach

Author

Menniti-Ippolito, Francesca, Ippoliti, Ilaria, Pastorelli, Augusto Alberto, Altieri, Ilaria, Scalise, Francesco, De Santis, Barbara, Debegnach, Francesca, Brera, Carlo, Pacifici, Roberta, Pichini, Simona, Pellegrini, Manuela, Rotolo, Maria Concetta, Graziano, Silvia, Palazzino, Giovanna, Multari, Giuseppina, Gallo, Francesca Romana, Neri, Bruno, Giannetti, Luigi, Russo, Katia, Fedrizzi, Giorgio, Bonan, Stefania, Mazzanti, Gabriela, Moro, Paola Angela, Salvi, Emanuela, Firenzuoli, Fabio, Valeri, Andrea, Moretti, Ugo, Traversa, Giuseppe, Silano, Marco, Stacchini, Paolo, and Boniglia, Concetta

Subjects
Adult, Male, Plant Extracts, Curcuma longa, food supplements, adverse reactions, food safety, chemical analyses, Middle Aged, food supplements, food safety, chemical analyses, Curcuma, Italy, Dietary Supplements, Humans, Female, adverse reactions, Chemical and Drug Induced Liver Injury, Curcuma longa, Aged
Abstract

Turmeric is the common name for the rhizome of Curcuma longa L. In the recent years, food supplements containing turmeric have been marketed and widely used by an increasing number of consumers. Spontaneous reports of suspected adverse reactions to food supplements are collected within the Phytovigilance system.An ad hoc multidisciplinary group investigated the suspected cases of hepatotoxicity reported to the Italian Phytovigilance system associated with the assumption of turmeric food supplements with the methodology specific to pharmacovigilance as well as for the evaluation of the quality and safety of food supplements.A cluster of 28 spontaneous reports of acute hepatitis, mostly with cholestasis, associated with turmeric products were sent to the Italian Phytovigilance system in the first six months of 2019. In all cases, except one, the causality assessment was at least possible. The suspected products were collected and analysed for the presence of drugs, heavy metals, aflatoxins, pesticides, synthetic dyes and pyrrolizidine alkaloids.On the basis of the results of all the activities performed by multidisciplinary group, regulatory intervention was taken. This study highlights the importance of developing an integrated evaluation approach for the evaluation of the adverse effects associated with the use of food supplements.

Published
2020

13. Association between Urinary Levels of Aflatoxin and Consumption of Food Linked to Maize or Cow Milk or Dairy Products

Author

Ferri, Fulvio, primary, Brera, Carlo, additional, De Santis, Barbara, additional, Collini, Giorgia, additional, Crespi, Enrica, additional, Debegnach, Francesca, additional, Gargano, Angelo, additional, Gattei, Daniela, additional, Magnani, Ines, additional, Mancuso, Pamela, additional, Mozzanica, Stefania, additional, Teodori, Elvira, additional, Djuric, Olivera, additional, and Giorgi Rossi, Paolo, additional

Published
2020
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14. Mycotoxins

Author

Miraglia, Marina, primary, De Santis, Barbara, additional, Grossi, Silvana, additional, and Brera, Carlo, additional

Published
2004
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17. Mycotoxin mixtures in food and feed: a holistic, innovative, flexible modelling approach for risk assessment MYCHIF

Author

Battilani, Paola, DallAsta, Chiara, Brera, Carlo, Campbell, K., Crisci, A., De Santis, Barbara, Gkrillas, A., Gonçalves, Ana Paula Monteiro, Oswald, I., Palumbo, R., Toscano, Piero, Venâncio, Armando, Dorne, J. L., and Universidade do Minho

Subjects
Micotoxinas, Micologia Alimentar, food and beverages, Avaliação de Risco
Abstract

Mycotoxin contamination can occur in many agricultural products both destined to food and feed. Mycotoxins are produced as the result of fungal metabolism and plant-pathogen interaction. Therefore, many structurally-related congeners, defined as modified mycotoxins are generated by plant &/or fungi metabolism, or food processing, and coexist with their native forms. Studies investigating the co-occurrence of multiple-mycotoxins reported 75%100% of samples containing more than one mycotoxin, referring to native compounds and 100% reported multiple modified forms. A major challenge in a risk assessment is to depict the biosynthesis of mycotoxin mixtures and their realistic occurrence. Over the last two years, the MYCHIF research project has been developing integrated and innovative modelling methodologies for the risk assessment of mycotoxin mixtures in food and feed. Particular efforts have been put into the investigation and understanding of complex systems and the identification of knowledge and data gaps. Extensive literature searches were conducted to identify and collect relevant scientific data on 1.interaction of fungi with crops, 2.variables influencing the synthesis of mycotoxins, 3.their co-occurrence in major crops of interest, and 4.toxicokinetics (TD) and toxicodynamics (TD) including biomarkers of exposure and effects in farm animals and humans. Differences on the toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic parameters of single mycotoxins vs multiple mycotoxins were considered. Data gaps have been identified for each area of data collection and included lack of consistent data for 1.the co- occurrence of multiple mycotoxins in major crops, and 2.toxicity of multiple mycotoxins in farm animals and humans. Nevertheless, modelling approaches were considered using TK and TD data for single mycotoxins and assumptions of dose addition for combined toxicity. In order to validate the modelling approaches, case studies were developed from an exposure and a hazard perspective using dose addition for combined toxicity as the default model. A whole food chain risk assessment workflow is proposed for the risk assessment of mycotoxin mixtures in food and feed as well as future work to fill major data gaps identified in the MYCHIF project at the level of co-occurrence and combined TK and toxicity dimensions., EFSA, info:eu-repo/semantics/publishedVersion

Published
2019

20. Mycotoxin mixtures in food and feed: holistic, innovative, flexible risk assessment modelling approach

Author

Battilani, Paola, primary, Palumbo, Roberta, additional, Giorni, Paola, additional, Dall’Asta, Chiara, additional, Dellafiora, Luca, additional, Gkrillas, Athanasios, additional, Toscano, Piero, additional, Crisci, Alfonso, additional, Brera, Carlo, additional, De Santis, Barbara, additional, Rosanna Cammarano, Rosaria, additional, Della Seta, Maurella, additional, Campbell, Katrina, additional, Elliot, Chris, additional, Venancio, Armando, additional, Lima, Nelson, additional, Gonçalves, Ana, additional, Terciolo, Chloe, additional, and Oswald, Isabelle P, additional

Published
2020
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24. Occurrence of deoxynivalenol in an elderly cohort in the UK: a biomonitoring approach

Author

Papageorgiou, Maria, primary, Wells, Liz, additional, Williams, Courtney, additional, White, Kay L.M., additional, De Santis, Barbara, additional, Liu, Yunru, additional, Debegnach, Francesca, additional, Miano, Brunella, additional, Moretti, Giorgio, additional, Greetham, Stephanie, additional, Brera, Carlo, additional, Atkin, Stephen L., additional, Hardie, Laura J., additional, and Sathyapalan, Thozhukat, additional

Published
2018
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27. Assessment of Urinary Deoxynivalenol Biomarkers in UK Children and Adolescents

Author

Papageorgiou, Maria, primary, Wells, Liz, additional, Williams, Courtney, additional, White, Kay, additional, De Santis, Barbara, additional, Liu, Yunru, additional, Debegnach, Francesca, additional, Miano, Brunella, additional, Moretti, Giorgio, additional, Greetham, Stephanie, additional, Brera, Carlo, additional, Atkin, Stephen, additional, Hardie, Laura, additional, and Sathyapalan, Thozhukat, additional

Published
2018
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28. Role of mycotoxins in the pathobiology of autism: A first evidence

Author

De Santis, Barbara, primary, Brera, Carlo, additional, Mezzelani, Alessandra, additional, Soricelli, Sabina, additional, Ciceri, Francesca, additional, Moretti, Giorgio, additional, Debegnach, Francesca, additional, Bonaglia, Maria Clara, additional, Villa, Laura, additional, Molteni, Massimo, additional, and Raggi, Maria Elisabetta, additional

Published
2017
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29. Study on the Association among Mycotoxins and other Variables in Children with Autism

Author

De Santis, Barbara, primary, Raggi, Maria, additional, Moretti, Giorgio, additional, Facchiano, Francesco, additional, Mezzelani, Alessandra, additional, Villa, Laura, additional, Bonfanti, Arianna, additional, Campioni, Alessandra, additional, Rossi, Stefania, additional, Camposeo, Serena, additional, Soricelli, Sabina, additional, Moracci, Gabriele, additional, Debegnach, Francesca, additional, Gregori, Emanuela, additional, Ciceri, Francesca, additional, Milanesi, Luciano, additional, Marabotti, Anna, additional, and Brera, Carlo, additional

Published
2017
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30. Deoxynivalenol Biomarkers in the Urine of UK Vegetarians

Author

Wells, Liz, primary, Hardie, Laura, additional, Williams, Courtney, additional, White, Kay, additional, Liu, Yunru, additional, De Santis, Barbara, additional, Debegnach, Francesca, additional, Moretti, Georgio, additional, Greetham, Stephanie, additional, Brera, Carlo, additional, Papageorgiou, Maria, additional, Thatcher, Natalie, additional, Rigby, Alan, additional, Atkin, Stephen, additional, and Sathyapalan, Thozhukat, additional

Published
2017
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31. Survey on Urinary Levels of Aflatoxins in Professionally Exposed Workers

Author

Ferri, Fulvio, primary, Brera, Carlo, additional, De Santis, Barbara, additional, Fedrizzi, Giorgio, additional, Bacci, Tiziana, additional, Bedogni, Lorena, additional, Capanni, Sauro, additional, Collini, Giorgia, additional, Crespi, Enrica, additional, Debegnach, Francesca, additional, Ferdenzi, Patrizia, additional, Gargano, Angelo, additional, Gattei, Daniela, additional, Luberto, Ferdinando, additional, Magnani, Ines, additional, Magnani, Massimo, additional, Mancuso, Pamela, additional, Menotta, Simonetta, additional, Mozzanica, Stefania, additional, Olmi, Milva, additional, Ombrini, Giuseppe, additional, Sala, Orietta, additional, Soricelli, Sabina, additional, Vicentini, Massimo, additional, and Giorgi Rossi, Paolo, additional

Published
2017
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32. Role of mycotoxins in the pathobiology of autism: A first evidence.

Author

De Santis, Barbara, Brera, Carlo, Mezzelani, Alessandra, Soricelli, Sabina, Ciceri, Francesca, Moretti, Giorgio, Debegnach, Francesca, Bonaglia, Maria Clara, Villa, Laura, Molteni, Massimo, and Raggi, Maria Elisabetta

Subjects
*MYCOTOXINS, *AUTISM, *GENOTYPE-environment interaction, *OXIDATIVE stress, *OCHRATOXINS, *GLIOTOXIN, *ZEARALENONE, *SPHINGOSINE
Abstract

Objectives: Gene-environment interaction is an emerging hypothesis to expound not only the autism pathogenesis but also the increased incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders (such as autistic spectrum disorder, attention-deficit, hyperactivity disorder). Among xenobiotics, mycotoxins are worldwide contaminants of food that provoke toxicological effects, crucially resembling several symptoms associated with autism such as oxidative stress, intestinal permeability, and inflammation. Here, we focused on a group of mycotoxins to test their role in the manifestation of autism, try to explain their mechanism of action, and discuss possible preventive and therapeutic interventions. Methods: Autistic children (n = 52) and healthy children [n = 58 (31 siblings and 27 unrelated subjects)] were recruited and body fluids and clinical data collected. The diagnosis of autism was made according to DSM V criteria, then with GMDS 0-2, WPPSI, and ADOS. Ochratoxin A (OTA), gliotoxin, zearalenone, and sphingosine/sphinganine ratio were determined by LC analysis in sera and urines. Statistical analysis was performed by the Wilcoxon Rank Sum (Mann-Whitney) test and Spearman test. Results: By comparing the results of autistic patients with those of unrelated controls, a significant association was found for OTA levels in urines (P = 0.0002) and sera (P = 0.0017), and also comparing patients with siblings and unrelated controls together (P = 0.0081). Discussion: Our results are the first describing a possible role of OTA in the pathobiology of autism. Recalling the male prevalence of ASD (male/female = 4-5/1), it is noted that, in animal models, OTA exerts its neurotoxicity especially in males. Moreover, in vitro, OTA increases microRNA-132 that is dysregulated in autistic patients and involved in reciprocal regulation of the autism-related genes MeCP2 and PTEN. A personalized diet coupled with probiotic administration, especially OTA adsorbing Lactobacillus, could ameliorate autistic symptoms in OTA-positive patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published
2019
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34. Determination of Deoxynivalenol in the Urine of Pregnant Women in the UK

Author

Wells, Liz, primary, Hardie, Laura, additional, Williams, Courtney, additional, White, Kay, additional, Liu, Yunru, additional, De Santis, Barbara, additional, Debegnach, Francesca, additional, Moretti, Georgio, additional, Greetham, Stephanie, additional, Brera, Carlo, additional, Rigby, Alan, additional, Atkin, Stephen, additional, and Sathyapalan, Thozhukat, additional

Published
2016
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36. 4th National Congress. Mycotoxins in agri-food chain. Istituto Superiore di Sanità. Rome, June 11-13 2012. Proceedings

Author

Brera, Carlo, De Santis, Barbara, Debegnach, Francesca, Gregori, Emanuela, Pannunzi, Elena, and Barea, Maria Cristina

Subjects
chemical substances, Italy, food contamination
Abstract

The 4th edition of the National Congress on Mycotoxins in Food Chain aims to deal with three main issues related to the impact of these toxic compounds in animal and human health. The first issue regards a topic still deeply underestimated and related to the relationship between human and animal pathologies and mycotoxin intake with diet. The second issue is mainly focused on the risk management of the mycotoxin threat along the whole agri-food chain through a detailed analysis of agronomic risks and preventive and corrective actions to be undertaken to minimize the presence of mycotoxins in crops. The third issue will give the opportunity to the speakers to present an updated information on the new diagnostic scenarios and on the possible developments of new diagnostic platforms aimed at a faster and faster and reliable analytical response to be used both in official control and in own-check activities. Since 2004 the National Congress has been held at the Istituto Superiore di Sanità (the Italian National Institute of Health) with a two-year frequency. This scientific event is an opportunity of debate for researchers and stakeholders on the impact of mycotoxins on economics, agriculture, industry, safety and legislation., IT; it; carlo.brera@iss.it

Published
2013
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37. Effect of Sample Size in the Evaluation of “In-Field” Sampling Plans for Aflatoxin B1Determination in Corn

Author

Brera, Carlo, De Santis, Barbara, Prantera, Elisabetta, Debegnach, Francesca, Pannunzi, Elena, Fasano, Floriana, Berdini, Clara, Slate, Andrew B., Miraglia, Marina, and Whitaker, Thomas B.

Abstract

Use of proper sampling methods throughout the agri-food chain is crucial when it comes to effectively detecting contaminants in foods and feeds. The objective of the study was to estimate the performance of sampling plan designs to determine aflatoxin B1(AFB1) contamination in corn fields. A total of 840 ears were selected from a corn field suspected of being contaminated with aflatoxin. The mean and variance among the aflatoxin values for each ear were 10.6 μg/kg and 2233.3, respectively. The variability and confidence intervals associated with sample means of a given size could be predicted using an equation associated with the normal distribution. Sample sizes of 248 and 674 ears would be required to estimate the true field concentration of 10.6 μg/kg within ±50 and ±30%, respectively. Using the distribution information from the study, operating characteristic curves were developed to show the performance of various sampling plan designs.

Published
2024
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38. Organic vs conventional farming: Differences in infection by mycotoxin-producing fungi on maize and wheat in Northern and Central Italy

Author

Lazzaro, Irene, Moretti, Antonio, Giorni, Paola, Brera, Carlo, Battilani, Paola, Giorni, Paola (ORCID:0000-0001-9538-1835), Battilani, Paola (ORCID:0000-0003-1287-1711), Lazzaro, Irene, Moretti, Antonio, Giorni, Paola, Brera, Carlo, Battilani, Paola, Giorni, Paola (ORCID:0000-0001-9538-1835), and Battilani, Paola (ORCID:0000-0003-1287-1711)

Abstract

This study aimed to monitor the main toxigenic fungi in neighbouring organic and conventional maize and wheat fields in Italy in 2010 and 2011. The Fusarium species mainly isolated were: Fusarium poae, sometimes predominant on Fusarium graminearum in wheat, and Fusarium verticillioides competing with Fusarium proliferatum and Fusarium subglutinans in maize. The incidence of Fusarium spp. was similar for both conventional (6%) and organic (4%) wheat, but it was influenced by weather conditions. 2010 was the most favourable for Fusarium species, with 10 times the incidence of 2011. Fusarium infection was significantly different between farming systems in maize (20% vs 35% in conventional and organic, respectively), while in 2010 the incidence was significantly higher than in 2011 (43% vs 25%). Aspergillus and Penicillium incidence was not linked to the farming system but to weather conditions, with moderately higher incidence in 2010.

Published
2015

39. Experimental study of deoxynivalenol biomarkers in urine

Author

Brera, Carlo, primary, de Santis, Barbara, additional, Debegnach, Francesca, additional, Miano, Brunella, additional, Moretti, Giorgio, additional, Lanzone, Antonio, additional, Del Sordo, Gelsomina, additional, Buonsenso, Danilo, additional, Chiaretti, Antonio, additional, Hardie, Laura, additional, White, Kay, additional, Lise Brantsæter, Anne, additional, Knutsen, Helle, additional, Sundstøl Eriksen, Gunnar, additional, Sandvik, Morten, additional, Wells, Liz, additional, Allenf, Stephanie, additional, and Sathyapalanf, Thozhukat, additional

Published
2015
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40. Development of a LC-MS/MS Method for the Multi-Mycotoxin Determination in Composite Cereal-Based Samples.

Author

De Santis, Barbara, Debegnach, Francesca, Gregori, Emanuela, Russo, Simona, Marchegiani, Francesca, Moracci, Gabriele, and Brera, Carlo

Subjects
POLLUTANTS, MYCOTOXINS, TECHNOLOGICAL innovations, AFLATOXINS, DEOXYNIVALENOL, LIQUID chromatography-mass spectrometry
Abstract

The analytical scenario for determining contaminants in the food and feed sector is constantly prompted by the progress and improvement of knowledge and expertise of researchers and by the technical innovation of the instrumentation available. Mycotoxins are agricultural contaminants of fungal origin occurring at all latitudes worldwide and being characterized by acute and chronic effects on human health and animal wellness, depending on the species sensitivity. The major mycotoxins of food concern are aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A, the first for its toxicity, and the second for its recurrent occurrence. However, the European legislation sets maximum limits for mycotoxins, such as aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and zearalenone, and indicative limits for T-2 and HT-2 toxins. Due to the actual probability that co-occurring mycotoxins are present in a food or feed product, nowadays, the availability of reliable, sensitive, and versatile multi-mycotoxin methods is assuming a relevant importance. Due to the wide range of matrices susceptible to mycotoxin contamination and the possible co-occurrence, a multi-mycotoxin and multi-matrix method was validated in liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) with the purpose to overcome specific matrix effects and analyze complex cereal-based samples within the Italian Total Diet Study project. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published
2017
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42. Modelling, predicting and mapping the emergence of aflatoxins in cereals in the EU due to climate change

Author

Battilani, Paola, Rossi, Vittorio, Giorni, Paola, Pietri, Amedeo, Gualla, Alessia, Van Der Fels Klerks, Hj, Booj, Cjh, Moretti, Antonio, Logrieco, Antonio, Toscano, Piero, Miraglia, Marina, De Santis, Barbara, Brera, Carlo, Battilani, Paola (ORCID:0000-0003-1287-1711), Rossi, Vittorio (ORCID:0000-0003-4090-6117), Giorni, Paola (ORCID:0000-0001-9538-1835), Pietri, Amedeo (ORCID:0000-0003-4594-8631), Battilani, Paola, Rossi, Vittorio, Giorni, Paola, Pietri, Amedeo, Gualla, Alessia, Van Der Fels Klerks, Hj, Booj, Cjh, Moretti, Antonio, Logrieco, Antonio, Toscano, Piero, Miraglia, Marina, De Santis, Barbara, Brera, Carlo, Battilani, Paola (ORCID:0000-0003-1287-1711), Rossi, Vittorio (ORCID:0000-0003-4090-6117), Giorni, Paola (ORCID:0000-0001-9538-1835), and Pietri, Amedeo (ORCID:0000-0003-4594-8631)

Abstract

Aflatoxin (AF) contamination in maize is of worldwide importance. Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus are the principal fungi responsible for AF production. Based on the current literature, AFs are not considered a problem in wheat and rice at harvest and no data were found on aspergilliwheat/ rice interactions in the field. Data on the effects influencing the development of A. flavus and A. parasiticus on maize and maize kernel at harvest were collected; however data on A. parasiticus and AFB2-G1-G2 were not sufficient for further use in predictive modelling. Thus, a model was developed to predict the risk of AFB1 contamination, due to A. flavus, in maize at harvest and further adapted to wheat and rice as host crops. The Joint Research Centre of the EC provided a database with mean daily temperatures during emergence, flowering and harvesting of maize, wheat and rice. Meteorological data (temperature, relative humidity and rain) obtained from the LARS weather generator, were used as input for the modelling of crop phenology and A. flavus behaviour. The output was designed at a 50 x 50 km scale over the European territory and generated over 100 years, in three different climate scenarios (present and A2 and B2 storylines, or +2°C and +5°C scenarios, proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change). Predictions showed a reduction in season length and an advance in flowering and harvest dates leading to an enlargement of the crop growing areas towards north EU, mainly for maize and rice, because earlier ripening could occur in these areas. The risk of A. flavus contamination was expected to increase in maize, both in the +2°C and +5°C scenarios, to be very low in wheat and to be absent in rice. Results were discussed and recommendations were made on data collection and prevention measures on AF risks.

Published
2012

43. Environment, dysbiosis, immunity and sex-specific susceptibility: A translational hypothesis for regressive autism pathogenesis

Author

Mezzelani, Alessandra, primary, Landini, Martina, additional, Facchiano, Francesco, additional, Raggi, Maria Elisabetta, additional, Villa, Laura, additional, Molteni, Massimo, additional, De Santis, Barbara, additional, Brera, Carlo, additional, Caroli, Anna Maria, additional, Milanesi, Luciano, additional, and Marabotti, Anna, additional

Published
2014
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50. Environment, dysbiosis, immunity and sex-specific susceptibility: A translational hypothesis for regressive autism pathogenesis.

Author

Mezzelani, Alessandra, Landini, Martina, Facchiano, Francesco, Raggi, Maria Elisabetta, Villa, Laura, Molteni, Massimo, De Santis, Barbara, Brera, Carlo, Caroli, Anna Maria, Milanesi, Luciano, and Marabotti, Anna

Subjects
AUTISM, DISEASE susceptibility, IMMUNE system, XENOBIOTICS, SEXISM, SEX factors in disease
Abstract

Background Autism is an increasing neurodevelopmental disease that appears by 3 years of age, has genetic and/or environmental etiology, and often shows comorbid situations, such as gastrointestinal (GI) disorders. Autism has also a striking sex-bias, not fully genetically explainable. Objective Our goal was to explain how and in which predisposing conditions some compounds can impair neurodevelopment, why this occurs in the first years of age, and, primarily, why more in males than females. Methods We reviewed articles regarding the genetic and environmental etiology of autism and toxins effects on animal models selected from PubMed and databases about autism and toxicology. Discussion Our hypothesis proposes that in the first year of life, the decreasing of maternal immune protection and child immune-system immaturity create an immune vulnerability to infection diseases that, especially if treated with antibiotics, could facilitate dysbiosis and GI disorders. This condition triggers a vicious circle between immune system impairment and increasing dysbiosis that leads to leaky gut and neurochemical compounds and/or neurotoxic xenobiotics production and absorption. This alteration affects the 'gut-brain axis' communication that connects gut with central nervous system via immune system. Thus, metabolic pathways impaired in autistic children can be affected by genetic alterations or by environment–xenobiotics interference. In addition, in animal models many xenobiotics exert their neurotoxicity in a sex-dependent manner. Conclusions We integrate fragmented and multi-disciplinary information in a unique hypothesis and first disclose a possible environmental origin for the imbalance of male:female distribution of autism, reinforcing the idea that exogenous factors are related to the recent rise of this disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Published
2015
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