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Surely no popular genre is as fascinated with origins as the superhero story, which almost invariably features an ordinary being suddenly and unexpectedly transformed into something extraordinary –...

Joe Simon and Jack Kirby’s Captain America famously burst into view when the debut issue of Captain America Comics appeared on newsstands during the final days of 1940 (despite the cover date of Ma...

We explore a variety of neural networks configurations for one- and two-channel spectrogram-mask-based speech enhancement. Our best model improves on previous state-of-the-art performance on the CHiME2 speech enhancement task by 0.4 decibels in signal-to-distortion ratio (SDR). We examine trade-offs such as non-causal look-ahead, computation, and parameter count versus enhancement performance and find that zero-look-ahead models can achieve, on average, within 0.03 dB SDR of our best bidirectional model. Further, we find that 200 milliseconds of look-ahead is sufficient to achieve equivalent performance to our best bidirectional model.

In recent years, deep networks have led to dramatic improvements in speech enhancement by framing it as a data-driven pattern recognition problem. In many modern enhancement systems, large amounts of data are used to train a deep network to estimate masks for complex-valued short-time Fourier transforms (STFTs) to suppress noise and preserve speech. However, current masking approaches often neglect two important constraints: STFT consistency and mixture consistency. Without STFT consistency, the system's output is not necessarily the STFT of a time-domain signal, and without mixture consistency, the sum of the estimated sources does not necessarily equal the input mixture. Furthermore, the only previous approaches that apply mixture consistency use real-valued masks; mixture consistency has been ignored for complex-valued masks. In this paper, we show that STFT consistency and mixture consistency can be jointly imposed by adding simple differentiable projection layers to the enhancement network. These layers are compatible with real or complex-valued masks. Using both of these constraints with complex-valued masks provides a 0.7 dB increase in scale-invariant signal-to-distortion ratio (SI-SDR) on a large dataset of speech corrupted by a wide variety of nonstationary noise across a range of input SNRs.

COSMA: Coherent Optics Sensors for Medical Application is an European Marie Curie Project running from 2012 to March 2016, with the participation of 10 teams from Armenia, Bulgaria, India, Israel, Italy, Poland, Russia, UK, USA. The main objective was to focus theoretical and experimental research on biomagnetism phenomena, with the specific aim to develop all-optical sensors dedicated to their detection and suitable for applications in clinical diagnostics. The paper presents some of the most recent results obtained during the exchange visits of the involved scientists, after an introduction about the phenomenon which is the pillar of this kind of research and of many other new fields in laser spectroscopy, atomic physics, and quantum optics: the dark resonance.

Measurement of magnetic fields on the few 100-km length scale is significant for many geophysical applications including mapping of crustal magnetism and ocean circulation measurements, yet available techniques for such measurements are very expensive or of limited accuracy. We propose a method for remote detection of magnetic fields using the naturally occurring atomic sodium-rich layer in the mesosphere and existing high-power lasers developed for laser guide star applications. The proposed method offers a dramatic reduction in cost and opens the way to large-scale, parallel magnetic mapping and monitoring for atmospheric science, navigation, and geophysics.

Sarcolemmal ATP-sensitive potassium (KATP) channels are activated after pathological depletion of intracellular ATP, unlike their pancreatic β-cell counterparts, which dynamically regulate membrane excitability in response to changes in blood glucose. We recently engineered a series of transgenic (TG) mice overexpressing an ATP-insensitive inward rectifying K+ channel protein (Kir)6.2 mutant (Kir6.2[ΔN30,K185Q]) or the accessory sulfonylurea receptor (SUR)2A (FLAG-SUR2A) or SUR1 (FLAG-SUR1) subunits of the KATP channel, under transcriptional control of the α-myosin heavy chain promoter. In the present study, we generated double transgenic (DTG) animals overexpressing both Kir6.2[ΔN30,K185Q] and FLAG-SUR1 or FLAG-SUR2A and examined the effects on cardiac excitability in vivo. No animals expressing both FLAG-SUR1 and Kir6.2[ΔN30,K185Q] transgenes at a high level were obtained. DTG mice expressing one transgene at a high level and the other at a lower level are born, but they die prematurely. Electrocardiographic analysis of both anesthetized and conscious animals revealed a constellation of arrhythmias in DTG animals, but not in wild-type or single TG littermates. The proarrhythmic effect of the transgene combination is intrinsic to the myocardium, since it persists in isolated hearts. Importantly, this effect is specific for SUR1-expressing DTG animals: DTG animals expressing both Kir6.2[ΔN30,K185Q] and FLAG-SUR2A at high levels exhibit neither impaired survival nor increased arrhythmia frequency, even with both subunits expressed at high levels. In demonstrating the profound arrhythmic consequences of KATP channels comprised of SUR1 and Kir6.2[ΔN30,K185Q] in the myocardium specifically, the results highlight the critical differential activation of SUR1 versus SUR2A, and indicate that expression of hyperactive KATP in the heart is likely to be proarrhythmic.

ATP-sensitive K(+) (K(ATP)) channels couple glucose metabolism to insulin secretion in pancreatic beta cells. In humans, loss-of-function mutations of beta cell K(ATP) subunits (SUR1, encoded by the gene ABCC8, or Kir6.2, encoded by the gene KCNJ11) cause congenital hyperinsulinaemia. Mice with dominant-negative reduction of beta cell K(ATP) (Kir6.2[AAA]) exhibit hyperinsulinism, whereas mice with zero K(ATP) (Kir6.2(-/-)) show transient hyperinsulinaemia as neonates, but are glucose-intolerant as adults. Thus, we propose that partial loss of beta cell K(ATP) in vivo causes insulin hypersecretion, but complete absence may cause insulin secretory failure.Heterozygous Kir6.2(+/-) and SUR1(+/-) animals were generated by backcrossing from knockout animals. Glucose tolerance in intact animals was determined following i.p. loading. Glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS), islet K(ATP) conductance and glucose dependence of intracellular Ca(2+) were assessed in isolated islets.In both of the mechanistically distinct models of reduced K(ATP) (Kir6.2(+/-) and SUR1(+/-)), K(ATP) density is reduced by approximately 60%. While both Kir6.2(-/-) and SUR1(-/-) mice are glucose-intolerant and have reduced glucose-stimulated insulin secretion, heterozygous Kir6.2(+/-) and SUR1(+/-) mice show enhanced glucose tolerance and increased GSIS, paralleled by a left-shift in glucose dependence of intracellular Ca(2+) oscillations.The results confirm that incomplete loss of beta cell K(ATP) in vivo underlies a hyperinsulinaemic phenotype, whereas complete loss of K(ATP) underlies eventual secretory failure.

As the rate-limiting controller of glucose metabolism, glucokinase represents the primary beta-cell "glucose sensor." Inactivation of both glucokinase (GK) alleles results in permanent neonatal diabetes; inactivation of a single allele causes maturity-onset diabetes of the young type 2 (MODY-2). Similarly, mice lacking both alleles (GK(-/-)) exhibit severe neonatal diabetes and die within a week, whereas heterozygous GK(+/-) mice exhibit markedly impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes, resembling MODY-2. Glucose metabolism increases the cytosolic [ATP]-to-[ADP] ratio, which closes ATP-sensitive K(+) channels (K(ATP) channels), leading to membrane depolarization, Ca(2+) entry, and insulin exocytosis. Glucokinase insufficiency causes defective K(ATP) channel regulation, which may underlie the impaired secretion. To test this prediction, we crossed mice lacking neuroendocrine glucokinase (nGK(+/-)) with mice lacking K(ATP) channels (Kir6.2(-/-)). Kir6.2 knockout rescues perinatal lethality of nGK(-/-), although nGK(-/-)Kir6.2(-/-) animals are postnatally diabetic and still die prematurely. nGK(+/-) animals are diabetic on the Kir6.2(+/+) background but only mildly glucose intolerant on the Kir6.2(-/-) background. In the presence of glutamine, isolated nGK(+/-)Kir6.2(-/-) islets show improved insulin secretion compared with nGK(+/-)Kir6.2(+/+). The significant abrogation of nGK(-/-) and nGK(+/-) phenotypes in the absence of K(ATP) demonstrate that a major factor in glucokinase deficiency is indeed altered K(ATP) signaling. The results have implications for understanding and therapy of glucokinase-related diabetes.

ATP-sensitive K+ channels (KATP channels) control electrical activity in β-cells and therefore are key players in excitation-secretion coupling. Partial suppression of β-cell KATP channels in transgenic (AAA) mice causes hypersecretion of insulin and enhanced glucose tolerance, whereas complete suppression of these channels in Kir6.2 knockout (KO) mice leads to hyperexcitability, but mild glucose intolerance. To test the interplay of hyperexcitability and dietary stress, we subjected AAA and KO mice to a high-fat diet. After 3 months on the diet, both AAA and KO mice converted to an undersecreting and markedly glucose-intolerant phenotype. Although Kir6.2 is expressed in multiple tissues, its primary functional consequence in both AAA and KO mice is enhanced β-cell electrical activity. The results of our study provide evidence that, when combined with dietary stress, this hyperexcitability is a causal diabetic factor. We propose an “inverse U” model for the response to enhanced β-cell excitability: the expected initial hypersecretion can progress to undersecretion and glucose-intolerance, either spontaneously or in response to dietary stress.

We demonstrate a cavity-enhanced room-temperature magnetic field sensor based on nitrogen-vacancy centers in diamond. Magnetic resonance is detected using absorption of light resonant with the 1042 nm spin-singlet transition. The diamond is placed in an external optical cavity to enhance the absorption, and significant absorption is observed even at room temperature. We demonstrate a magnetic field sensitivity of 2.5 nT/sqrt(Hz), and project a photon shot-noise-limited sensitivity of 70 pT/sqrt(Hz) for a few mW of infrared light, and a quantum projection-noise-limited sensitivity of 250 fT/sqrt(Hz) for the sensing volume of 90 um x 90 um 200 um., main text 5 pages, supplementary material 3 pages

One of the pleasures of exploring the first blossoming of comic books in America lies in discovering how very strange some of the fruit was. Certainly, any reader approaching the Wonder Woman stori...

We demonstrate an all-optical magnetometer capable of measuring the magnitude and direction of a magnetic field using nonlinear magneto-optical rotation in a cesium vapor. Vector capability is added by effective modulation of the field along orthogonal axes and subsequent demodulation of the magnetic-resonance frequency. This modulation is provided by the AC Stark shift induced by circularly polarized laser beams. The sensor exhibits a demonstrated rms noise floor of 50 fT/Hz^(1/2) in measurement of the field magnitude and 0.5 mrad/Hz^(1/2) in the field direction; elimination of technical noise would improve these sensitivities to 12 fT/Hz^(1/2) and 5 microrad/Hz^(1/2), respectively. Applications for a precise all-optical vector magnetometer would include magnetically sensitive fundamental physics experiments, such as the search for a permanent electric dipole moment of the neutron., Comment: 5 pages, 4 figures Supplemental Material: 3 pages, 1 figure

We report an observation of long-lived spin-singlet states in a C−H113 spin pair in a zero magnetic field. In C13-labeled formic acid, we observe spin-singlet lifetimes as long as 37 s, about a factor of 3 longer than the T1 lifetime of dipole polarization in the triplet state. In contrast to common high-field experiments, the observed coherence is a singlet-triplet coherence with a lifetime T2 longer than the T1 lifetime of dipole polarization in the triplet manifold. Moreover, we demonstrate that heteronuclear singlet states formed between a H1 and a C13 nucleus can exhibit longer lifetimes than the respective triplet states even in the presence of additional spins that couple to the spin pair of interest. Although long-lived homonuclear spin-singlet states have been extensively studied, this is the first experimental observation of analogous singlet states in heteronuclear spin pairs.

At the most fundamental level, the performance of atomic sensors is limited by quantum decoherence. The problem of decoherence has been addressed at low magnetic fields with atomic samples, where the limiting factor of the coherence lifetime arises from spin-exchange collisions. In this paper, we demonstrate the complex role of the collisions in the relaxation of quantum states of alkali-metal atoms. The detailed understanding of the collision role allows us to reduce the ground-state relaxation in stronger magnetic fields (tens $\ensuremath{\mu}\mathrm{T}$). Reduction of the relaxation rate enables improvement of the performance of atomic sensors. In particular, enhancement of the sensitivity of optical magnetometers in the detection of stronger magnetic fields may be obtained. Reduced transverse relaxation also enables increasing quantum-information storage time in atomic vapor.

“I hope that they may live to see the power of the King and the Lords thrown down, that yet may live to see property preserved.”— Colonel Petty at Putney, 28 October 1647 (Woodhouse, 61)The famous army debates held at Putney in 1647 provide us with some remarkable insights into the misgivings of the men who were soon to bring about the trial and execution of their king. Their very practical need to placate the then powerful “Leveller” faction within the army drew the “Grandees” into talks which clearly reveal the limits of their revolutionary aspirations. The principal objection of both Oliver Cromwell and Henry Ireton to the proposals of the Levellers is also the most telling: both men saw in the proposed Leveller constitution, The Agreement of the People, a threat to the current economic order, an order based upon the ownership of property by a relatively small number of men.

We use nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy of alkali metals sealed in glass vapor cells to perform in situ identification of chemical contaminants. The alkali Knight shift varies with the concentration of the impurity, which in turn varies with temperature as the alloy composition changes along the liquidus curve. Intentional addition of a known impurity validates this approach and reveals that sodium is often an intrinsic contaminant in cells filled with distilled, high-purity rubidium or cesium. Measurements of the Knight shift of the binary Rb–Na alloy confirm prior measurements of the shift's linear dependence on Na concentration, but similar measurements for the Cs–Na system demonstrate an unexpected nonlinear dependence of the Knight shift on the molar ratio. This non-destructive approach allows monitoring and quantification of ongoing chemical processes within the kind of vapor cells which form the basis for precise sensors and atomic frequency standards.

Atomic magnetometry was performed at Earth's magnetic field over a free-space distance of ten meters. Two laser beams aimed at a distant alkali-vapor cell excited and detected the $^{87}$Rb magnetic resonance, allowing the magnetic field within the cell to be interrogated remotely. Operated as a driven oscillator, the magnetometer measured the geomagnetic field with \lessgtrsim{\lesssim}3.5\,pT precision in a $\sim$2\,s data acquisition; this precision was likely limited by ambient field fluctuations. The sensor was also operated in self-oscillating mode with a 5.3\,pT/$\sqrt{\textrm{Hz}}$ noise floor. Further optimization will yield a high-bandwidth, fully remote magnetometer with sub-pT sensitivity., Comment: Accepted to Appl. Phys. Lett.; 3 pages, 3 figures

This article is based on findings made by members of the Student Support Service of the Royal National Institute for the Blind during study visits to Hungary, Poland and Czecho‐Slovakia in June and September 1991 and during attendance at a conference in Prague in November 1991. All these visits were funded by the EC under the Tempus scheme ‐ Trans European Mobility Programme for University Students. The present position of students who have a significant visual disability was assessed against a background of the services available to such students in Britain and Ireland. Information was sought on students’ studies, the support services available from universities, local societies for the blind and other sources. Interviews showed that a significant number of visually handicapped students were studying in higher education, aided generally by supportive friends and staff. However, a considerable lack of specialist material and equipment was revealed and, in certain cases also, a lack of awareness o...

Reviews of books on the humanities published in Canada in 1993.

We have measured changes in the ground-state populations of Cs vapor induced by optical pumping at high magnetic field. The $2.7$-T field of our experiments is strong enough to decouple the nuclear and electronic spins, allowing us to independently measure each population. The spatial dependence of the Cs populations in small amounts of buffer gas obeys a simple coupled diffusion model and the relative populations reveal the details of relaxation within the vapor cell. Optical pumping can produce high nuclear polarization in the Cs vapor due to perturbations of the hyperfine interaction during collisions with buffer-gas particles and depending on the pumping transition, radiation trapping can strongly influence the electronic and nuclear polarizations in the vapor.

Optical pumping of alkali-metal atoms in vapor cells causes spin currents to flow to the cell walls where excess angular momentum accumulates in the wall nuclei. Experiments reported here indicate that the substantial enhancement of the nuclear-spin polarization of salts at the cell walls is primarily due to the nuclear-spin current, with a lesser contribution from the electron-spin current of the vapor.

A prototype magnetometer for anti-submarine warfare applications is being developed based on nonlinear magneto-optical rotation (NMOR) in atomic vapors. NMOR is an atomic spectroscopy technique that exploits coherences among magnetic sublevels of atoms such as cesium or rubidium to measure magnetic fields with high precision. NMOR uses stroboscopic optical pumping via frequency or amplitude modulation of a linearly polarized laser beam to create the alignment. An anti-relaxation coating on the walls of the atomic vapor cell can result in a long lifetime of 1 s or more for the coherence and enables precise measurement of the precession frequency. With proper feedback, the magnetometer can self-oscillate, resulting in accurate tracking and fast time response. The NMOR magnetic resonance spectrum of 87 Rb has been measured as a function of heading in Earth's field. Optical pumping of alignment within the F=2 hyperfine manifold generates three resonances separated by the nonlinear Zeeman splitting. The spectra show a high degree of symmetry, consisting of a central peak and two side peaks of nearly equal intensity. As the heading changes, the ratio of the central peak to the average of the two side peaks changes. The amplitudes of the side peaks remain nearly equal. An analysis of the forced oscillation spectra indicates that, away from dead zones, heading error in self-oscillating mode should be less than 1 nT. A broader background is also observed in the spectra. While this background can be removed when fitting resonance spectra, understanding it will be important to achieving the small heading error in self-oscillating mode that is implied by the spectral measurements. Progress in miniaturizing the magnetometer is also reported. The new design is less than 10 cm across and includes fiber coupling of light to and from the magnetometer head. Initial tests show that the prototype has achieved a narrow spectral width and a strong polarization rotation signal.

BACKGROUND Smooth muscle cell proliferation plays a major role in the genesis of restenosis after angioplasty or vascular injury. Although the effects of arterial exposure to high-energy radiation sources such as laser have been investigated in detail, the effects on vascular cells of low-intensity radiant energy in combination with photoactive agents have not been extensively characterized. Psoralens are photoactive agents that are known to be well tolerated when used in conjunction with local exposure to ultraviolet light in the A band (UVA) for the treatment of various dermatologic proliferative disorders. METHODS AND RESULTS We have investigated the effects of psoralen/UVA (PUVA) exposure on the proliferation of bovine aortic smooth muscle cells. Proliferation and viability were assessed over a 14-day period by trypan blue exclusion counts. Cell cycle effects were evaluated by thymidine incorporation and flow cytometry with DNA quantitation after addition of serum or platelet-derived growth factor B-chain (PDGF-BB) to subconfluent cells synchronized by serum withdrawal. No effect was observed after exposure to 8-methoxypsoralen (8-MOP) at concentrations up to 10 microM or UVA irradiation at energies up to 2.5 J/cm2. Longwave ultraviolet light and 8-MOP were found to behave synergistically as potent inhibitors of DNA synthesis in bovine aortic smooth muscle cells with the EC50 in combination ranging from 7 microM at 0.35 J/cm2 to 0.2 microM at 2.1 J/cm2. Similar antiproliferative effects were obtained by an inverse variation of dose and energy delivered. After serum stimulation, inhibition of DNA synthesis was found with either an immediate or delayed (16-hour) application of PUVA. This effect was independent of subsequent 8-MOP washout. Flow cytometry of cells treated with PUVA at several times after serum stimulation demonstrated for each time point a block in further cell cycle progression for cells in all phases of the cell cycle. Evaluation of [125I]-labeled PDGF and epidermal growth factor (EGF) binding revealed no effect of PUVA on the apparent number or affinity of PDGF binding sites present but did reveal a dose-dependent inhibition by PUVA of EGF binding. This inhibition of EGF binding occurred increasingly at higher PUVA doses than the cell cycle inhibition and accordingly did not appear to represent a critical mechanism for the antiproliferative effect. Cell counting after a single exposure to PUVA (1 microM, 1.5 J/cm2) revealed complete stasis of cell proliferation over a 28-day period without recurrent exposure. No increase in trypan-positive cells was noted over this period. CONCLUSIONS PUVA treatment represents a novel method for locally inhibiting proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells without producing cytolysis.

We report what we believe is the first experimental limit placed on plant biomagnetism. Measurements with a sensitive atomic magnetometer were performed on the Titan arum (Amorphophallus titanum) inflorescence, known for its fast bio-chemical processes while blooming. We find that the surface magnetic field from these processes, projected along the Earth's magnetic field, and measured at the surface of the plant, is less then ~0.6uG., Comment: 5 pages, 5 figures, to be published - modified one sentence in abstract + reformatted fig

A self-oscillating magnetometer based on nonlinear magneto-optical rotation using amplitude-modulated pump light and unmodulated probe light (AM-NMOR) in 87Rb has been constructed and tested towards a goal of airborne detection of magnetic anomalies. In AM-NMOR, stroboscopic optical pumping via amplitude modulation of the pump beam creates alignment of the ground electronic state of the rubidium atoms. The Larmor precession causes an ac rotation of the polarization of a separate probe beam; the polarization rotation frequency provides a measure of the magnetic field. An anti-relaxation coating on the walls of the atomic vapor cell results in a long lifetime of 56 ms for the alignment, which enables precise measurement of the precession frequency. Light is delivered to the magnetometer by polarization-maintaining optical fibers. Tests of the sensitivity include directly measuring the beat frequency between the magnetometer and a commercial instrument and measurements of Earth's field under magnetically quiet conditions, indicating a sensitivity of at least 5 pT/\sqrt{Hz}. Rotating the sensor indicates a heading error of less than 1 nT, limited in part by residual magnetism of the sensor., Comment: 9 pages, 8 figures, submitted to the Proceedings of SPIE

We report NMR measurements of metallic (133)Cs in glass cells. The solid-liquid phase transition was studied by observing the NMR peaks arising from these two phases; surprisingly, many cells yielded two additional NMR peaks below the melting point. We attribute these signals to two distinct impurities which can dissolve in the liquid alkali metal and affect its chemical shift. Intentional contamination of cesium cells with O(2) confirms this hypothesis for one peak. The other contaminant remains unknown but can appear in evacuated cells. Similar effects have been seen in (87)Rb cells.

We report enhancement of the spin polarization of {sup 133}Cs nuclei in CsH salt by spin transfer from an optically pumped cesium vapor. The nuclear polarization was 4.0 times the equilibrium polarization at 9.4 T and 137 deg. C, with larger enhancements at lower fields. This work is the first demonstration of spin transfer from a polarized alkali vapor to the nuclei of a solid, opening up new possibilities for research in hyperpolarized materials.

Glucose metabolism in pancreatic beta-cells elevates cytoplasmic [ATP]/[ADP], causing closure of ATP-sensitive K(+) channels (K(ATP) channels), Ca(2+) entry through voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels, and insulin release. Decreased responsiveness of K(ATP) channels to the [ATP]/[ADP] ratio should lead to decreased insulin secretion and diabetes. We generated mice expressing K(ATP) channels with reduced ATP sensitivity in their beta-cells. Previously, we described a severe diabetes, with nearly complete neonatal lethality, in four lines (A-C and E) of these mice. We have now analyzed an additional three lines (D, F, and G) in which the transgene is expressed at relatively low levels. These animals survive past weaning but are glucose intolerant and can develop severe diabetes. Despite normal islet morphology and insulin content, islets from glucose-intolerant animals exhibit reduced glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. The data demonstrate that a range of phenotypes can be expected for a reduction in ATP sensitivity of beta-cell K(ATP) channels and provide models for the corollary neonatal diabetes in humans.

Xenon-129 biosensors offer an attractive alternative to conventional MRI contrast agents due to the chemical shift sensitivity and large nuclear magnetic signal of hyperpolarized (129)Xe. Here, we report the first enzyme-responsive (129)Xe NMR biosensor. This compound was synthesized in 13 steps by attaching the consensus peptide substrate for matrix metalloproteinase-7 (MMP-7), an enzyme that is upregulated in many cancers, to the xenon-binding organic cage, cryptophane-A. The final coupling step was achieved on solid support in 80-92% yield via a copper (I)-catalyzed [3+2] cycloaddition. In vitro enzymatic cleavage assays were monitored by HPLC and fluorescence spectroscopy. The biosensor was determined to be an excellent substrate for MMP-7 (K(M) = 43 microM, V(max) = 1.3 x 10(-)(8) M s(-1), k(cat)/K(M) = 7,200 M(-1) s(-1)). Enzymatic cleavage of the tryptophan-containing peptide led to a dramatic decrease in Trp fluorescence, lambda(max) = 358 nm. Stern-Volmer analysis gave an association constant of 9000 +/- 1,000 M(-1) at 298 K between the cage and Trp-containing hexapeptide under enzymatic assay conditions. Most promisingly, (129)Xe NMR spectroscopy distinguished between the intact and cleaved biosensors with a 0.5 ppm difference in chemical shift. This difference most likely reflected a change in the electrostatic environment of (129)Xe, caused by the cleavage of three positively charged residues from the C-terminus. This work provides guidelines for the design and application of new enzyme-responsive (129)Xe NMR biosensors.