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Objectives: The skeleton embodies an individual's environment and lived experiences. Studying childhood growth disruption can, therefore, aid in understanding the experiences of children in the past. This study evaluates growth disruption in a medieval Toulousian subadult sample to explore factors that may have influenced childhood growth and mortality at this site and to assess the utility of Harris line (HL) interpretations in bioarchaeology. Materials and Methods: Femoral growth disruption was assessed in n = 71 subadults (0.125–12.42 years) from the 10th–13th century St. Étienne cemetery of Toulouse, France, using femoral length, total area, cortical area, and relative cortical area. Femoral radiographs were assessed for HLs. To determine the prevalence of growth disruption, z‐scores were calculated using data from the Denver growth study. Results: The majority of subadults in this sample suffered from femoral growth disruption. Young children (1.0–3.99 years) were the most affected, with >65% experiencing reduced appositional growth and linear growth stunting at time‐of‐death. Additionally, while many individuals presented with observable HLs, linear and appositional growth did not significantly differ between individuals with and without HLs. Discussion: Maternal malnutrition and inadequate complementary feeding practices likely contributed to the high prevalence of growth disruption among the youngest individuals in the study. The older children and adolescents buried at St. Étienne experienced an amelioration in growth deficits, indicating an improvement in nutrition and/or disease load. The results of this study suggest that more consideration is required when interpreting the presence/absence of HLs, and that studies assessing HLs may benefit from using a more individualistic approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The rapid urbanization of the Industrial Revolution in 18th-19th century England presented new health challenges. Our aim is to investigate using English skeletal remains whether the living conditions for an urban working class group in the Industrial Revolution negatively impacted upon their skeletal growth compared with a population from a rural agrarian parish. The Industrial Revolution skeletal material is from St Martin's Churchyard, Birmingham (SMB), West Midlands. It dates primarily from the first half of the nineteenth century when Birmingham was a major manufacturing center. The rural group is from Wharram Percy (WP), North Yorkshire, and dates from 10th-19th century AD. The methodology involves plotting diaphyseal bone lengths versus dental age for subadults. No overall difference was found between the two populations in bone length-for-age among the 2- to 18-year cohort. However the younger parts of the SMB cohort were smaller than at WP; the opposite was true of the older parts of the cohort. Growth rate, as inferred from crosssectional data, appeared greater at SMB than at WP. The only result consistent with expectations is the larger bone dimensions in young children from WP, but this likely reflects prolonged breastfeeding at WP not differences in urban and rural environments. That the deleterious health effects that we know accompanied the major transition in human society from a rural agrarian to an urban industrialized living environment should be little manifest in skeletal endochondral growth data is discouraging for those who would use such methodology to monitor health in earlier populations. KEY WORDS: endochondral bone growth; industrialisation; urbanization; England; 19th century

Gross and radiographic changes characteristic of inadequate bone mineralization due to rickets are described in 21 immature skeletons from a 19th century urban population from Birmingham, England. The aims of the study are as follows: to evaluate and if possible augment existing dry-bone criteria for the recognition of rickets in immature skeletal remains; to investigate the value of radiography for the paleopathological diagnosis of rickets; and to compare and contrast the expression of rickets in this group with that previously documented for a rural agrarian population from Wharram Percy, England. Some gross skeletal signs of rickets which were not previously well-documented in paleopathological studies are noted. The worth of radiography for evaluating structural changes to both cortical and trabecular bone in the disease is demonstrated, and features useful for the interpretation of vitamin D deficiency are discussed. The pattern of skeletal elements affected and the severity of changes differs in the Birmingham group from that seen in the comparative rural population. It is emphasized that a variety of factors may influence the expression of rickets in paleopathological material, including rate of skeletal growth, age cohort affected, and intensity of vitamin D deficiency. Nevertheless, careful analysis, not only of the frequency of rickets but also of the degree of severity of lesions and the patterning with respect to skeletal elements affected, may enable more nuanced understanding of the biocultural context of the disease in earlier populations. KEY WORDS vitamin D deficiency: radiography; paleopathology; metabolic disease

Growing awareness of the morbidity and mortality caused by fractures associated with age-related bone loss and osteoporosis has led to an increasing number of studies of bone loss in archaeological material. There are a variety of ways through which age-related bone loss can be investigated; density, cortical thickness and micro-architectural structure of trabecular bone. One of the most widely applied approaches has been investigation of density. However, due to the lack of a `standard' it has not been possible to make direct comparisons between the results of different investigations. A `standard' (calibration device) has now been produced for use with DEXA and other density techniques allowing direct comparison of results of studies in which it is used. Investigations demonstrated that only high resolution DEXA scans using research tools such as `small animal software' (Lunar inc.) should be applied to archaeological bone. Same day scans with repositioning of samples produced precision of 1.68% C.V. (high resolution) compared to 7.8% (standard software). All samples should be scanned a minimum of 3 times, as poor condition or odd shape (e.g. osteophytes) can result in poor precision (4.7% C.V.) even with high resolution scanning. Type of analysis performed on data after scanning was also important. Only manual analysis produced reproducible results and a region of interest of 12mm X 12mm is recommended. Variation in results obtained on different days with repositioning (2.59% C.V.) demonstrated that scanning the `standard' each time equipment is turned on is vital for allow calibration of results. The study demonstrated that if basic guidelines are followed use of the `standard' will allow direct comparison of future studies, allowing spatial and temporal differences in age-related bone loss to be determined.

Hip fractures have high incidence rates in many current groups and are associated with high morbidity, mortality, and considerable expenditure. Although hip fractures associated with significant traumatic events can occur at any age, many hip fractures occur in older adults. To date, few hip fractures have been reported from archaeological skeletal material, and a number of hypotheses have been suggested for this. This research presents a comprehensive assessment of hip fractures in archaeological bone; 1597 adult (18+ years) skeletons from eight urban post-medieval sites from England dating from the 18th and 19th centuries were recorded, and contemporary medical texts reviewed. This adult sample included 834 males and 652 females as well as 11 persons of undetermined sex. Ways of classifying and describing fractures in the clinical literature were reviewed and a methodology applicable to paleopathology determined. Of this sample, 15 (0.94%) had fractures in the femoral neck or intertrochanteric area: nine males, four females, and two individuals of undetermined sex. The numbers of fractures in males were interesting and most likely represent examples of accidental trauma as well as osteoporosis-related fractures, the latter receiving growing awareness in recent clinical literature. Overall there was an age-related trend with more individuals aged 50+ years with fractures than in other age categories. Underlying osteoporosis was potentially a complicating factor in five individuals and was likely associated with a vitamin D deficiency osteomalacia and a metastatic neoplastic condition in a further two cases. Fractures occurring close to the time of death and healed fractures were observed, indicating that the risk of mortality following this trauma was not consistent across this 18th and 19th century sample. Skeletal and historical evidence presented in this study indicate that the impact of hip fracture injuries varied, with survival likely linked to the fracture type. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Estimation of age-at-death is an important and challenging part of any investigation of human remains. Extensive research has been undertaken on this subject as demographic information contributes much to bioarchaeological and forensic work. Disarticulated, fragmentary and commingled human remains occur from a wide range of spatial and temporal contexts, and estimation of age-at-death can be particularly challenging in these collections. This study evaluated the impact of preservation on techniques that might be applied and their relative utility, using human remains from the site of the Smith's Knoll associated with the Battle of Stoney Creek, a War of 1812 collection from Ontario Canada with some supporting documentary evidence on age-at-death. Features assessed were the pubic symphysis, auricular surface and epiphyseal fusion in the innominate. An age-at-death estimate was produced for 16 out of 19 individuals considered; the highest minimum number of individuals (MNI) was 24 (right radius) from 2701 identifiable fragments. The pubic symphysis made no contribution to construction of a demographic profile, but as has been suggested previously epiphyseal fusion was useful in this respect. Results demonstrate that previous statements regarding preservation of the auricular surface and its utility in fragmented and poorly preserved collections need to be carefully evaluated. Although 129 fragments of innominate were recorded just one had an auricular surface and post auricular area that could be fully assessed. Transition Analysis was easier to apply than techniques developed previously, and findings from this study suggest that use of the forensic prior distribution could assist in assessment of battlefield assemblages. These results raise some valuable points that need to be considered in any future attempts to improve age-at-death estimates using the auricular surface, and important questions regarding expectations for estimation of age-at-death in disarticulated, fragmented and commingled collections of human bone. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To examine and compare practitioners' judgements of risk of future pathology associated with pathology-free disease asymptomatic third molars.Subjects: 10 oral and maxillofacial surgeons and 18 family dentists (90% male) with experience ranging from 5-28 years.Method: Participants were presented with periapical radiographs of 36 asymptomatic, disease-free mandibular third molars and were informed of the age and sex of the patients and the degree of eruption of the third molars. Participants were asked to assess likelihood of future pathology in general, and more specifically, likelihood of root resorption, pericoronitis, periodontitis, cystic change and neoplasia if the third molar was left in situ.Results: There was significant variation between the 28 raters but not between the two groups. Excepting assessment of future cystic change, there was no evidence that oral and maxillofacial surgeons and family dentists rated the 36 cases in consistently different ways.Conclusions: Practitioners varied very considerably in their judgment of the risks of pathology associated with asymptomatic disease-free third molars. Specialisation, did not account for this variation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Investigation of historic cemeteries, for which documentary sources exist, provides a unique opportunity to investigate the effects of socio-economic conditions on the health of individuals. Redevelopment and landscaping of the area around St. Martin's church, Birmingham, England, required excavation of the site. 35 vaults and 775 earth-cut graves, dating predominantly to the 18th and 19th centuries were located and investigated. Documentary work undertaken demonstrates that those buried in vaults were part of the new middle class of the rapidly developing city. For example, older members of the extended family buried in vault 5 had moved to Birmingham from villages in the region at the turn of the 19th century and established what became successful businesses, allowing a move to the new suburbs around the city. Analysis of individuals from vaults demonstrated that 78% of individuals were largely complete and most (70%) were well preserved, allowing comprehensive recording of skeletal pathology and abnormalities. Investigation of skeletal pathology has revealed a number of interesting results. Although, levels of deformity linked to vitamin D efficiency was low in individuals from vaults (1.3%), other conditions were seen more frequently than in the rest of the site, for example DISH (4.9%) and nasal fractures (5.8%). The differences in levels of pathologies is reviewed and it is demonstrated that although the move out of the city to the suburbs may have protected against some conditions `better' levels of health did not automatically follow.