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We present vertical profiles of temperature and density from solar occultation (SO) observations by the “Nadir and Occultation for Mars Discovery” (NOMAD) spectrometer on board the Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) during its first operational year, which covered the second half of Mars Year 34. We used calibrated transmittance spectra in 380 scans, and apply an in-house pre-processing to clean data systematics. Temperature and CO2 profiles up to about 90 km, with consistent hydrostatic adjustment, are obtained, after adapting an Earth-tested retrieval scheme to Mars conditions. Both pre-processing and retrieval are discussed to illustrate their performance and robustness. Our results reveal the large impact of the MY34 Global Dust Storm (GDS), which warmed the atmosphere at all altitudes. The large GDS aerosols opacity limited the sounding of tropospheric layers. The retrieved temperatures agree well with global climate models (GCM) at tropospheric altitudes, but NOMAD mesospheric temperatures are wavier and globally colder by 10 K in the perihelion season, particularly during the GDS and its decay phase. We observe a warm layer around 80 km during the Southern Spring, especially in the Northern Hemisphere morning terminator, associated to large thermal tides, significantly stronger than in the GCM. Cold mesospheric pockets, close to CO2 condensation temperatures, are more frequently observed than in the GCM. NOMAD CO2 densities show oscillations upon a seasonal trend that track well the latitudinal variations expected. Results uncertainties and suggestions to improve future data re-analysis are briefly discussed., The IAA/CSIC team acknowledges financial support from the State Agency for Research686of the Spanish MCI through the ‘Center of Excellence Severe Ochoa’ award for the687Instituto de Astrof ́ısica de Andalucia (DEV-2017-0709) and funding by grants688PGC2018-101836-B-100 (MCI/AEI/FEDER, EU),689PID2019-110689RB-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033, and RTI2018-100920-J-I00.690ExoMars is a space mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos. The691NOMAD experiment is led by the Royal Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy692(IASB-BIRA), assisted by Co-PI teams from Spain (IAA-CSIC), Italy (IN AF-IA PS), and693the United Kingdom (Open University). This project acknowledges funding by the Belgian694Science Policy Office (BELLS), with the financial and contractual coordination by the695ESAU Prod ex Office (PEA 4000103401, 4000121493) as well as by UK Space Agency696through grants ST/V002295/1, ST/V005332/1 and ST/S00145X/1 and Italian Space697Agency through grant 2018-2-HHS.0. US investigators were supported by the National698Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work was supported by the Belgian Funds de699la Recherche Scientific – FIRS under grant number 30442502 (ETHOME). This project700has received funding from the European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation701program under grant agreement No 101004052 (Road Map project). We want to thank the702LMD and LATMOS teams for the continuous development of the LMD-MGCM.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited., We present vertical profiles of temperature and density from solar occultation (SO) observations by the “Nadir and Occultation for Mars Discovery” (NOMAD) spectrometer on board the Trace Gas Orbiter during its first operational year, which covered the second half of Mars Year 34. We used calibrated transmittance spectra in 380 scans, and apply an in-house pre-processing to clean data systematics. Temperature and CO2 profiles up to about 90 km, with consistent hydrostatic adjustment, are obtained, after adapting an Earth-tested retrieval scheme to Mars conditions. Both pre-processing and retrieval are discussed to illustrate their performance and robustness. Our results reveal the large impact of the MY34 Global Dust Storm (GDS), which warmed the atmosphere at all altitudes. The large GDS aerosols opacity limited the sounding of tropospheric layers. The retrieved temperatures agree well with global climate models (GCM) at tropospheric altitudes, but NOMAD mesospheric temperatures are wavier and globally colder by 10 K in the perihelion season, particularly during the GDS and its decay phase. We observe a warm layer around 80 km during the Southern Spring, especially in the Northern Hemisphere morning terminator, associated to large thermal tides, significantly stronger than in the GCM. Cold mesospheric pockets, close to CO2 condensation temperatures, are more frequently observed than in the GCM. NOMAD CO2 densities show oscillations upon a seasonal trend that track well the latitudinal variations expected. Results uncertainties and suggestions to improve future data re-analysis are briefly discussed. © 2022 The Authors. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA., The IAA/CSIC team acknowledges financial support from the State Agency for Research of the Spanish MCI through the ‘Center of Excellence Severe Ochoa’ award for the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucia (DEV-2017-0709) and funding by grants PGC2018-101836-B-100 (MCI/AEI/FEDER, EU), PID2019-110689RB-I00/AEI/10.13039/501100011033, and RTI2018-100920-J-I00. ExoMars is a space mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos. The NOMAD experiment is led by the Royal Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy (IASB-BIRA), assisted by Co-PI teams from Spain (IAA-CSIC), Italy (INAF-IAPS), and the United Kingdom (Open University). This project acknowledges funding by the Belgian Science Policy Office (BELLS), with the financial and contractual coordination by the ESAU Prod ex Office (PEA 4000103401, 4000121493) as well as by UK Space Agency through Grant ST/V002295/1, ST/V005332/1 and ST/S00145X/1 and Italian Space Agency through Grant 2018-2-HHS.0. US investigators were supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. This work was supported by the Belgian Funds de la Recherche Scientific—FIRS under Grant 30442502 (ET_HOME). This project has received funding from the European Union Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement No 101004052 (Road Map project)., With funding from the Spanish government through the "Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence" accreditation (CEX2021-001131-S).

We report vertical profiles of water and D/H for one Martian year as measured with the TGO/NOMAD instrument. The observations were performed via solar occultation, providing water profiles up to ∼100 km and D/H up to ∼60 km, with a vertical resolution of 1–2 km. The measurements reveal dramatic variability of water and D/H over short timescales and with altitude and location on the planet. We investigated the release of seasonal water from the polar caps during southern and northern summer, by mapping water and its D/H near the polar regions. Above the hygropause, the D/H drops substantially below 2 VSMOW, and both seasonal polar caps show a consistent and enriched D/H of 5–7 VSMOW within the hygrosphere. © 2022 American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved., This work was supported by NASA’s Mars Program Office under WBS 604796, “Participation in the TGO/NOMAD Investigation of Trace Gases on Mars.” ExoMars is a space mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) and Roscosmos. The NOMAD experiment is led by the Royal Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy (IASB-BIRA), assisted by Co-PI teams from Spain (IAA-CSIC), Italy (INAF-IAPS), and the United Kingdom (The Open University). This project acknowledges funding by the Belgian Science Policy Office (BELSPO), with the financial and contractual coordination by the ESA Prodex Office (PEA 4000103401, 4000121493), by the Spanish MICINN through its Plan Nacional and by European funds under grants PGC2018-101836-B-I00 and ESP2017-87143-R (MINECO/FEDER) and by the Spanish Science Ministry Centro de Excelencia Severo Ochoa Program under grant SEV-2017-0709, as well as by the UK Space Agency through grants ST/V002295/1, ST/V005332/1, and ST/S00145X/1 and Italian Space Agency through grant 2018-2-HH.0. This work was supported by the Belgian Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique – FNRS (grant number 30442502, ET_HOME) and has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation program (grant agreement no. 101004052, RoadMap project). SR thanks BELSPO for the FED-tWIN funding (Prf-2019-077 - RT-MOLEXO).

This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited., Using the Nadir and Occultation for MArs Discovery instrument aboard Trace Gas Orbiter, we derived the CO/CO2 profiles between 75 and 105 km altitude with the equivalent width technique. The derived CO/CO2 profiles showed significant seasonal variations in the southern hemisphere with decreases near perihelion and increases near aphelion. The estimation of the CO/CO2 profiles with a one-dimensional photochemical model shows that an altitude-dependent eddy diffusion coefficient better reproduces the observed profiles than a vertically uniform one. Our estimation suggests that the eddy diffusion coefficient in Ls = 240–270 is uniformly larger by a factor of ∼2 than that in Ls = 90–120 in the southern hemisphere, while they are comparable in the northern hemisphere. This fact demonstrates that the eddy diffusion coefficient is variable with season and latitude. © 2022. The Authors., The NOMAD experiment is led by the Royal Belgian Institute for Space Aeronomy (IASB-BIRA), assisted by Co-PI teams from Spain (IAA-CSIC), Italy (INAF-IAPS), and the United Kingdom (Open University). This project acknowledges funding by the Belgian Science Policy Office (BELSPO), with the financial and contractual coordination by the ESA Prodex Office (PEA 4000103401, 4000121493), by Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (MCIU) and by European funds under Grants PGC2018-101836-B-I00 and ESP2017-87143-R (MINECO/FEDER), as well as by UK Space Agency through Grants ST/V002295/1, ST/V005332/1, and ST/S00145x/1 and Italian Space Agency through Grant 2018-2-HH.0. This work was supported by the Belgian Fonds de la Recherche Scientifique–FNRS under Grant No. 30442502 (ET_HOME). The IAA/CSIC team acknowledges financial support from the State Agency for Research of the Spanish MCIU through the “Center of Excellence Severo Ochoa” award for the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía (SEV-2017-0709). US investigators were supported by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Canadian investigators were supported by the Canadian Space Agency. Y. N. is supported by The international Joint Graduate Program in Earth and Environmental Sciences, Tohoku University (GP-EES), and the Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science (JP21J13710). This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Nos. 20H04605 and 19K03943.