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For over 10,000 years, Andeans have resided at high altitude where the partial pressure of oxygen challenges human survival. Recent studies have provided evidence for positive selection acting in Andeans on the HIF2A (also known as EPAS1) locus, which encodes for a central transcription factor of the hypoxia-inducible factor pathway. However, the precise mechanism by which this allele might lead to altitude-adaptive phenotypes, if any, is unknown. By analyzing whole genome sequencing data from 46 high-coverage Peruvian Andean genomes, we confirm evidence for positive selection acting on HIF2A and a unique pattern of variation surrounding the Andean-specific single nucleotide variant (SNV), rs570553380, which encodes for an H194R amino acid substitution in HIF-2α. Genotyping the Andean-associated SNV rs570553380 in a group of 299 Peruvian Andeans from Cerro de Pasco, Peru (4,338 m), reveals a positive association with increased fraction of exhaled nitric oxide, a marker of nitric oxide biosynthesis. In vitro assays show that the H194R mutation impairs binding of HIF-2α to its heterodimeric partner, aryl hydrocarbon receptor nuclear translocator. A knockin mouse model bearing the H194R mutation in the Hif2a gene displays decreased levels of hypoxia-induced pulmonary Endothelin-1 transcripts and protection against hypoxia-induced pulmonary hypertension. We conclude the Andean H194R HIF2A allele is a hypomorphic (partial loss of function) allele.

Highland native Andeans have resided at altitude for millennia. They display high aerobic capacity (VO2max) at altitude, which may be a reflection of genetic adaptation to hypoxia. Previous genomewide (GW) scans for natural selection have nominated Egl-9 homolog 1 gene (EGLN1) as a candidate gene. The encoded protein, EGLN1/PHD2, is an O2 sensor that controls levels of the Hypoxia Inducible Factor-α (HIF-α), which regulates the cellular response to hypoxia. From GW association and analysis of covariance performed on a total sample of 429 Peruvian Quechua and 94 US lowland referents, we identified 5 EGLN1 SNPs associated with higher VO2max (L⋅min-1 and mL⋅min-1⋅kg-1) in hypoxia (rs1769793, rs2064766, rs2437150, rs2491403, rs479200). For 4 of these SNPs, Quechua had the highest frequency of the advantageous (high VO2max) allele compared with 25 diverse lowland comparison populations from the 1000 Genomes Project. Genotype effects were substantial, with high versus low VO2max genotype categories differing by ∼11% (e.g., for rs1769793 SNP genotype TT = 34.2 mL⋅min-1⋅kg-1 vs. CC = 30.5 mL⋅min-1⋅kg-1). To guard against spurious association, we controlled for population stratification. Findings were replicated for EGLN1 SNP rs1769793 in an independent Andean sample collected in 2002. These findings contextualize previous reports of natural selection at EGLN1 in Andeans, and support the hypothesis that natural selection has increased the frequency of an EGLN1 causal variant that enhances O2 delivery or use during exercise at altitude in Peruvian Quechua.

Genetic and nongenetic factors are involved in the individual ability to physiologically acclimatize to high-altitude hypoxia through processes that include increased heart rate and ventilation. High-altitude acclimatization is thought to have a genetic component, yet it is unclear if other factors, such as epigenetic gene regulation, are involved in acclimatization to high-altitude hypoxia in nonacclimatized individuals. We collected saliva samples from a group of healthy adults of European ancestry (n = 21) in Kathmandu (1,400 m; baseline) and three altitudes during a trek to the Everest Base Camp: Namche (3,440 m; day 3), Pheriche (4,240 m; day 7), and Gorak Shep (5,160 m; day 10). We used quantitative bisulfite pyrosequencing to determine changes in DNA methylation, a well-studied epigenetic marker, in LINE-1, EPAS1, EPO, PPARa, and RXRa. We found significantly lower DNA methylation between baseline (1,400 m) and high altitudes in LINE-1, EPO (at 4,240 m only), and RXRa. We found increased methylation in EPAS1 (at 4,240 m only) and PPARa. We also found positive associations between EPO methylation and systolic blood pressure and RXRa methylation and hemoglobin. Our results show that incremental exposure to hypoxia can affect the epigenome. Changes to the epigenome, in turn, could underlie the process of altitude acclimatization.

Anaerobic capacity is an important determinant of swimming performance, and a feasible land-based test for measuring swim-specific anaerobic capacity is lacking. This study assessed the test-retest reliability of a swim-specific modification of the Wingate anaerobic capacity test: the WAnT-Swim. Ten competitive and fitness swimmers from the local college community completed four WAnT-Swim tests, two per day on two separate days, to determine peak, mean, and low power, as well as fatigue index (FI). Reliability was assessed using coefficients of variation (CV), intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC), and Pearson correlations. Power output exhibited low CV (<6%) with excellent reliability (ICC ≥0.98) and strong associations between tests (r ≥.92). FI demonstrated the weakest reliability (CV = 3.9 ± 1.0%; ICC = 0.65; r =.13). These data suggest that the WAnT-Swim, when administered using the VASA swimming ergometer, is a reliable test of anaerobic power during land-based swimming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Understanding the distribution of human genetic variation is an important foundation for research into the genetics of common diseases. Some of the alleles that modify common disease risk are themselves likely to be common and, thus, amenable to identification using gene-association methods. A problem with this approach is that the large sample sizes required for sufficient statistical power to detect alleles with moderate effect make gene-association studies susceptible to false-positive findings as the result of population stratification 12. Such type I errors can be eliminated by using either family-based association tests or methods that sufficiently adjust for population stratification 345. These methods require the availability of genetic markers that can detect and, thus, control for sources of genetic stratification among populations. In an effort to investigate population stratification and identify appropriate marker panels, we have analysed 11,555 single nucleotide polymorphisms in 203 individuals from 12 diverse human populations. Individuals in each population cluster to the exclusion of individuals from other populations using two clustering methods. Higher-order branching and clustering of the populations are consistent with the geographic origins of populations and with previously published genetic analyses. These data provide a valuable resource for the definition of marker panels to detect and control for population stratification in population-based gene identification studies. Using three US resident populations (European-American, African-American and Puerto Rican), we demonstrate how such studies can proceed, quantifying proportional ancestry levels and detecting significant admixture structure in each of these populations.

Objectives: Potatoes are an important staple crop across the world and particularly in the Andes, where they were cultivated as early as 10,000 years ago. Ancient Andean populations that relied upon this high‐starch food to survive could possess genetic adaptation(s) to digest potato starch more efficiently. Here, we analyzed genomic data to identify whether this putative adaptation is still present in their modern‐day descendants, namely Peruvians of Indigenous American ancestry. Materials and methods: We applied several tests to detect signatures of natural selection in genes associated with starch‐digestion, AMY1, AMY2, SI, and MGAM in Peruvians. These were compared to two populations who only recently incorporated potatoes into their diets, Han Chinese and West Africans. Results: Overlapping statistical results identified a regional haplotype in MGAM that is unique to Peruvians. The age of this haplotype was estimated to be around 9547 years old. Discussion: The MGAM haplotype in Peruvians lies within a region of high transcriptional activity associated with the REST protein. The timing of this haplotype suggests that it arose in response to increased potato cultivation and attendant consumption. For Peruvian populations that relied upon the high‐starch potato as a major source of nutrition, natural selection likely favored these MGAM variant(s) that led to more efficient digestion and increased glucose production. This research provides further support that detecting subtle shifts in human diet can be a major driver of human evolutionary change, as these results indicate that there is global variation in human ability to better digest high‐starch foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND: Arsenic in drinking water causes severe health effects. Indigenous people in the South American Andes have likely lived with arsenic-contaminated drinking water for thousands of years. Inhabitants of San [...]

A genomewide admixture mapping (AM) panel for Hispanic/Latino populations is described. The AM panel has 2,120 ancestry markers and the main criteria for marker selection were both high information content for Native American/European ancestry and small frequency differences between the Mesoamerican and South American samples.

Andean high-altitude (HA) natives have a low (blunted) hypoxic ventilatory response (HVR), lower effective alveolar ventilation, and lower ventilation (VE) at rest and during exercise compared with acclimatized newcomers to HA. Despite blunted chemosensitivity and hypoventilation, Andeans maintain comparable arterial [O.sub.2] saturation ([Sa.sub.O.sub.2]. This study was designed to evaluate the influence of ancestry on these trait differences. At sea level, we measured the HVR in both acute (HVR-A) and sustained (HVR-S) hypoxia in a sample of 32 male Peruvians of mainly Quechua and Spanish origins who were born and raised at sea level. We also measured resting and exercise VE after 10-12 h of exposure to altitude at 4,338 m. Native American ancestry proportion (NAAP) was assessed for each individual using a panel of 80 ancestry-informative molecular markers (AIMs). NAAP was inversely related to HVR-S after 10 rain of isocapnic hypoxia (r = -0.36, P = 0.04) but was not associated with HVR-A. In addition, NAAP was inversely related to exercise VE (r = -0.50, P = 0.005) and ventilatory equivalent (VE/[V.sub.O.sub.2], r = -0.51, P = 0.004) measured at 4,338 m. Thus Quechua ancestry may partly explain the well-known blunted HVR (10, 35, 36, 57, 62) at least to sustained hypoxia, and the relative exercise hypoventilation at altitude of Andeans compared with European controls. Lower HVR-S and exercise VE could reflect improved gas exchange and/or attenuated chemoreflex sensitivity with increasing NAAP. On the basis of these ancestry associations and on the fact that developmental effects were completely controlled by study design, we suggest both a genetic basis and an evolutionary origin for these traits in Quechua. genetic markers; admixture; arterial saturation; Andes

Forced vital capacity (FVC) and maximal exercise response were measured in two populations of Peruvian males (age, 18-35 years) at 4,338 m who differed by the environment in which they were born and raised, i.e., high altitude (Cerro de Pasco, Peru, BHA, n = 39) and sea level (Lima, Peru, BSL, n = 32). BSL subjects were transported from sea level to 4,338 m, and were evaluated within 24 hr of exposure to hypobaric hypoxia. Individual admixture level (ADMIX, % Spanish ancestry) was estimated for each subject, using 22 ancestry-informative genetic markers and also by skin reflectance measurement (MEL). Birthplace accounted for the ~10% larger FVC (P < 0.001), ~15% higher maximal oxygen consumption (V[O.sub.2]max, ml x [min.sup.-1] x [kg.sup.-1]) (P < 0.001), and ~5% higher arterial oxygen saturation during exercise (Sp[O.sub.2]) (P < 0.001) of BHA subjects. ADMIX was low in both study groups, averaging 9.5 [+ or -] 2.6% and 2.1 [+ or -] 0.3% in BSL and BHA subjects, respectively. Mean underarm MEL was significantly higher in the BSL group (P < 0.001), despite higher ADMIX. ADMIX was not associated with any study phenotype, but study power was not sufficient to evaluate hypotheses of genetic adaptation via the ADMIX variable. MEL and FVC were positively correlated in the BHA (P = 0.035) but not BSL (P = 0.335) subjects. However, MEL and ADMIX were not correlated across the entire study sample (P = 0.282). In summary, results from this study emphasize the importance of developmental adaptation to high altitude. While the MEL-FVC correlation may reflect genetic adaptation to high altitude, study results suggest that alternate (environmental) explanations be considered. KEY WORDS pulmonary; V[O.sub.2]max; arterial oxygen saturation; Andes; genetic markers; adaptation-hypoxia

Peak oxygen consumption (VO(sub 2) peak) was measured in 150 adult males (18-35 years old) in Bolivia, using a complete migrant study design to partition developmental from ancestral (genetic) effects of high-altitude (HA) exposure. High-altitude natives (HANs, Aymara/Quechua ancestry, n = 75) and low-altitude natives (LANs, European] North American ancestry, n = 75) were studied at high altitude (3,600-3,850 m) and near sea level (420 m). HAN and LAN migrant groups to a nonnative environment were classified as: multigeneration migrants, born and raised in a nonnative environment; child migrants who migrated to the nonnative environment during the period of growth and development (0-18 years old); and adult migrants who migrated after 18 years of age. Variability in VO(sub 2) peak due to high-altitude adaptation was modeled by covariance analysis, adjusting for fat-free mass and physical activity (training) differences between groups. A trend for increased VO(sub 2) peak with increasing developmental high-altitude exposure in migrant groups did not reach statistical significance, but low statistical power may have limited the ability to detect this effect. HANs and LANs born, raised, and tested at high altitude had similar VO(sub 2) peak values, indicating no genetic effect, or an effect much smaller than that reported previously in the literature. There was no functional correlation between forced vital capacity and VO(sub 2) peak, within or across groups. These results do not support the hypothesis that Andean HANs have been selected to express a greater physical work capacity in hypoxia. Am J Phys Anthropol 110:435-455, 1999. KEY WORDS: physical work capacity; human adaptation; Bolivia; exercise; migrant study design; physical activity level; hypoxia

People born and raised at high altitudes (HA) develop larger chests and greater lung capacity than those born and raised at low altitudes. This was the conclusion of a study of 170 men in Bolivia. Some were born and raised at one altitude, some migrated from one to the other, and some had ancestors who lived at another altitude. The study showed that both genetic factors and exposure to HA during development resulted in greater lung capacity and larger chests.

High-altitude adaptation is a classic example of natural selection operating on the human genome. Physiological and genetic adaptations have been documented in populations with a history of living at high altitude. However, the role of epigenetic gene regulation, including DNA methylation, in high-altitude adaptation is not well understood. We performed an epigenome-wide DNA methylation association study based on whole blood from 113 Peruvian Quechua with differential lifetime exposures to high altitude (>2,500) and recruited based on a migrant study design. We identified two significant differentially methylated positions (DMPs) and 62 differentially methylated regions (DMRs) associated with high-altitude developmental and lifelong exposure statuses. DMPs and DMRs were found in genes associated with hypoxia-inducible factor pathway, red blood cell production, blood pressure, and others. DMPs and DMRs associated with fractional exhaled nitric oxide also were identified. We found a significant association between EPAS1 methylation and EPAS1 SNP genotypes, suggesting that local genetic variation influences patterns of methylation. Our findings demonstrate that DNA methylation is associated with early developmental and lifelong high-altitude exposures among Peruvian Quechua as well as altitude-adaptive phenotypes. Together these findings suggest that epigenetic mechanisms might be involved in adaptive developmental plasticity to high altitude. Moreover, we show that local genetic variation is associated with DNA methylation levels, suggesting that methylation associated SNPs could be a potential avenue for research on genetic adaptation to hypoxia in Andeans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Findings: What is the central question of this study?What is the relative contribution of a putative tonic splenic contraction to the haematological acclimatization process during high altitude ascent in native lowlanders?What is the main finding and its importance?Spleen volume decreased by −14.3% (−15.2 ml) per 1000 m ascent, with an attenuated apnoea‐induced [Hb] increase, attesting to a tonic splenic contraction during high altitude ascent. The [Hb]‐enhancing function of splenic contraction may contribute to restoring oxygen content early in the acclimatization process at high altitude. Voluntary apnoea causes splenic contraction and reductions in heart rate (HR; bradycardia), and subsequent transient increases in haemoglobin concentration ([Hb]). Ascent to high altitude (HA) induces systemic hypoxia and reductions in oxygen saturation (SpO2), which may cause tonic splenic contraction, which may contribute to haematological acclimatization associated with HA ascent. We measured resting cardiorespiratory variables (HR, SpO2, [Hb]) and resting splenic volume (via ultrasound) during incremental ascent from 1400 m (day 0) to 3440 m (day 3), 4240 m (day 7) and 5160 m (day 10) in non‐acclimatized native lowlanders during assent to HA in the Nepal Himalaya. In addition, apnoea‐induced responses in HR, SpO2 and splenic volume were measured before and after two separate voluntary maximal apnoeas (A1–A2) at 1400, 3440 and 4240 m. Resting spleen volume decreased −14.3% (−15.2 ml) per 1000 m with ascent, from 140 ± 41 ml (1400 m) to 108 ± 28 ml (3440 m; P > 0.99), 94 ± 22 ml (4240 m; P = 0.009) and 84 ± 28 ml (5160 m; P = 0.029), with concomitant increases in [Hb] from 125 ± 18.3 g l−1 (1400 m) to 128 ± 10.4 g l−1 (3440 m), 138.8 ± 12.7 g l−1 (4240 m) and 157.5 ± 8 g l−1 (5160 m; P = 0.021). Apnoea‐induced splenic contraction was 50 ± 15 ml (1400 m), 44 ± 17 ml (3440 m; P > 0.99) and 26 ± 8 ml (4240 m; P = 0.002), but was not consistently associated with increases in [Hb]. The apnoea‐induced bradycardia was more pronounced at 3440 m (A1: P = 0.04; A2: P = 0.094) and at 4240 m (A1: P = 0.037 A2: P = 0.006) compared to values at 1400 m. We conclude that hypoxia‐induced splenic contraction at rest (a) may contribute to restoring arterial oxygen content through its [Hb]‐enhancing contractile function and (b) eliminates further apnoea‐induced [Hb] increases in hypoxia. We suggest that tonic splenic contraction may contribute to haematological acclimatization early in HA ascent in humans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New Findings: What is the central question of this study?We assessed the utility of a new metric for quantifying ventilatory acclimatization to high altitude, derived from differential ascent and descent steady‐state cardiorespiratory variables (i.e. hysteresis). Furthermore, we aimed to investigate whether the magnitude of cardiorespiratory hysteresis was associated with the development of acute mountain sickness.What is the main finding and its importance?Hysteresis in steady‐state cardiorespiratory variables quantifies ventilatory acclimatization to high altitude. The magnitude of cardiorespiratory hysteresis during ascent to and descent from high altitude was significantly related to the development of symptoms of acute mountain sickness. Hysteresis in steady‐state chemoreflex drive can provide a simple, non‐invasive method of tracking ventilatory acclimatization to high altitude. Maintenance of arterial blood gases is achieved through sophisticated regulation of ventilation, mediated by central and peripheral chemoreflexes. Respiratory chemoreflexes are important during exposure to high altitude owing to the competing influence of hypoxia and hypoxic hyperventilation‐mediated hypocapnia on steady‐state ventilatory drive. Inter‐individual variability exists in ventilatory acclimatization to high altitude, potentially affecting the development of acute mountain sickness (AMS). We aimed to quantify ventilatory acclimatization to high altitude by comparing differential ascent and descent values (i.e. hysteresis) in steady‐state cardiorespiratory variables. We hypothesized that: (i) the hysteresis area formed by cardiorespiratory variables during ascent and descent would quantify the magnitude of ventilatory acclimatization; and (ii) larger hysteresis areas would be associated with lower AMS symptom scores during ascent. In 25 healthy, acetazolamide‐free trekkers ascending to and descending from 5160 m, cardiorespiratory hysteresis was measured in the partial pressure of end‐tidal CO2, peripheral oxygen saturation, minute ventilation, chemoreceptor stimulus index (end‐tidal CO2/peripheral oxygen saturation) and the calculated steady‐state chemoreflex drive (SS‐CD; minute ventilation/chemoreceptor stimulus index) using portable devices (capnograph, peripheral pulse oximeter and respirometer, respectively). Symptoms of AMS were assessed daily using the Lake Louise questionnaire. We found that: (i) ascent–descent hysteresis was present in all cardiorespiratory variables; (ii) SS‐CD is a valid metric for tracking ventilatory acclimatization to high altitude; and (iii) the highest AMS scores during ascent exhibited a significant, moderate and inverse correlation with the magnitude of SS‐CD hysteresis (rs = −0.408, P = 0.043). We propose that ascent–descent hysteresis is a new and feasible way to quantify ventilatory acclimatization in trekkers during high‐altitude exposure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]