Search

Revealing the mechanisms underlying the breathtaking morphological diversity observed in nature is a major challenge in Biology. It has been established that recurrent mutations in hotspot genes cause the repeated evolution of morphological traits, such as body pigmentation or the gain and loss of structures. To date, however, it remains elusive whether hotspot genes contribute to natural variation in the size and shape of organs. As natural variation in head morphology is pervasive in Drosophila, we studied the molecular and developmental basis of differences in compound eye size and head shape in two closely related Drosophila species. We show differences in the progression of retinal differentiation between species and we applied comparative transcriptomics and chromatin accessibility data to identify the GATA transcription factor Pannier (Pnr) as central factor associated with these differences. Although the genetic manipulation of Pnr affected multiple aspects of dorsal head development, the effect of natural variation is restricted to a subset of the phenotypic space. We present data suggesting that this developmental constraint is caused by the coevolution of expression of pnr and its cofactor u-shaped (ush). We propose that natural variation in expression or function of highly connected developmental regulators with pleiotropic functions is a major driver for morphological evolution and we discuss implications on gene regulatory network evolution. In comparison to previous findings, our data strongly suggest that evolutionary hotspots are not the only contributors to the repeated evolution of eye size and head shape in Drosophila., (© The Author(s) 2021. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Society for Molecular Biology and Evolution.)

Background: Pleuropodia are limb-derived glandular organs that transiently appear on the first abdominal segment in embryos of insects from majority of "orders". They are missing in the genetic model Drosophila and little is known about them. Experiments carried out on orthopteran insects 80 years ago indicated that the pleuropodia secrete a "hatching enzyme" that digests the serosal cuticle to enable the larva to hatch, but evidence by state-of-the-art molecular methods is missing., Results: We used high-throughput RNA-sequencing to identify the genes expressed in the pleuropodia of the locust Schistocerca gregaria (Orthoptera). First, using transmission electron microscopy we studied the development of the pleuropodia during 11 stages of the locust embryogenesis. We show that the glandular cells differentiate and start secreting just before the definitive dorsal closure of the embryo and the secretion granules outside the cells become more abundant prior to hatching. Next, we generated a comprehensive embryonic reference transcriptome for the locust and used it to study genome wide gene expression across ten morphologicaly defined stages of the pleuropodia. We show that when the pleuropodia have morphological markers of functional organs and produce secretion, they are primarily enriched in transcripts associated with transport functions. They express genes encoding enzymes capable of digesting cuticular protein and chitin. These include the potent cuticulo-lytic Chitinase 5, whose transcript rises just before hatching. Unexpected finding was the enrichment in transcripts for immunity-related enzymes. This indicates that the pleuropodia are equipped with epithelial immunity similarly as barrier epithelia in postembryonic stages., Conclusions: These data provide transcriptomic support for the historic hypothesis that pleuropodia produce cuticle-degrading enzymes and function in hatching. They may also have other functions, such as facilitation of embryonic immune defense. By the genes that they express the pleuropodia are specialized embryonic organs and apparently an important though neglected part of insect physiology., Competing Interests: Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing interests., (© The Author(s). 2020.)

Research in various fields of evolutionary biology has shown that divergence in gene expression is a key driver for phenotypic evolution. An exceptional contribution of cis -regulatory divergence has been found to contribute to morphological diversification. In the light of these findings, the analysis of genome-wide expression data has become one of the central tools to link genotype and phenotype information on a more mechanistic level. However, in many studies, especially if general conclusions are drawn from such data, a key feature of gene regulation is often neglected. With our article, we want to raise awareness that gene regulation and thus gene expression is highly context dependent. Genes show tissue- and stage-specific expression. We argue that the regulatory context must be considered in comparative expression studies., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the writing of the manuscript.

Chemokines influence tumor metastasis by targeting tumor, stromal, and hematopoietic cells. Characterizing the chemokine mRNA expression profile of human primary melanoma samples, we found CXCL5 significantly up-regulated in stage T4 primary melanomas when compared to thin melanomas (T1 stage). To characterize the role of CXCL5 in melanoma progression, we established a metastasizing murine xenograft model using CXCL5-overexpressing human melanoma cells. CXCL5 had no effect on melanoma proliferation in vitro and on primary tumor growth in vivo, but CXCL5-overexpressing tumors recruited high amounts of neutrophils and exhibited significantly increased lymphangiogenesis in our severe combined immune-deficient mouse model. Recruited neutrophils were found in close proximity to or within lymphatic vessels, often in direct contact with melanoma cells. Clinically, CXCL5-overexpressing melanomas had significantly increased lymph node metastases. We were able to translate these findings to human patient samples and found a positive correlation between CXCL5 expression, numbers of neutrophils in stage T4 primary melanoma, and the occurrence of subsequent locoregional metastasis., (Copyright © 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The oncogenic potential of the transcriptional repressor Bcl-6 (B-cell lymphoma 6) was originally discovered in non-Hodgkin patients and the soluble Bcl-6 inhibitor 79-6 was developed to treat diffuse large B-cell lymphomas with aberrant Bcl-6 expression. Since we found Bcl-6 and its co-repressor BCoR (Bcl-6 interacting co-repressor) to be regulated in human microvascular endothelium by colorectal cancer cells, we investigated their function in sprouting angiogenesis which is central to tumor growth. Based on Bcl-6/BCoR gene silencing we found that the transcriptional repressor complex in fact constitutes an endogenous inhibitor of vascular sprouting by supporting the stalk cell phenotype: control of Notch target genes (HES1, HEY1, DLL4) and cell cycle regulators (cyclin A and B1). Thus, when endothelial cells were transiently transfected with Bcl-6 and/or BCoR siRNA, vascular sprouting was prominently induced. Comparably, when the soluble Bcl-6 inhibitor 79-6 was applied in the mouse retina model of physiological angiogenesis, endothelial sprouting and branching were significantly enhanced. To address the question whether clinical treatment with 79-6 might therefore have detrimental therapeutic effects by promoting tumor angiogenesis, mouse xenograft models of colorectal cancer and diffuse large B-cell lymphoma were tested. Despite a tendency to increased tumor vessel density, 79-6 therapy did not enhance tumor expansion. In contrast, growth of colorectal carcinomas was significantly reduced which is likely due to a combined 79-6 effect on cancer cells and tumor stroma. These findings may provide valuable information regarding the future clinical development of Bcl-6 inhibitors.

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has become a major target in cancer treatment as it promotes tumor angiogenesis. Therapy with anti-VEGF antibody bevacizumab reportedly induces high levels of circulating VEGF which may potentially contribute to resistance. Based on animal or computational models, mechanisms of VEGF induction by bevacizumab have been proposed but not verified in the clinical setting. Hence, we evaluated sixty patients with colorectal cancer metastases for changes in plasma VEGF during neoadjuvant/conversion and adjuvant chemotherapy with or without bevacizumab. VEGF expression was assessed in tissue sections of liver metastases. The VEGF source was investigated with in vitro cultures of tumor, endothelial cells, fibroblasts and platelets, and potential protein stabilization due to anti-VEGF therapy was addressed. A VEGF rise was observed in blood of bevacizumab patients but not in chemotherapy controls, and VEGF was found to be largely complexed by the antibody. A comparable VEGF increase occurred in the presence (neoadjuvant) and absence of the tumor (adjuvant). Accordingly, VEGF expression in tumor tissue was not determined by bevacizumab treatment. Investigations with isolated cell types did not reveal VEGF production in response to bevacizumab. However, antibody addition to endothelial cultures led to a dose-dependent blockade of VEGF internalization and hence stabilized VEGF in the supernatant. In conclusion, the VEGF rise in cancer patients treated with bevacizumab is not originating from the tumor. The accumulation of primarily host-derived VEGF in circulation can be explained by antibody interference with receptor-mediated endocytosis and protein degradation. Thus, the VEGF increase in response to bevacizumab therapy should not be regarded as a tumor escape mechanism., Competing Interests: All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Background: Botulinum (neuro)toxin A (BoNT) is widely used in the field of plastic and reconstructive surgery. Among treatment of pain, hyperhidrosis, or aesthetic purposes, it is also used to enhance wound healing and prevent excessive scar formation. Some clinical data already exist, but only little is known on a cellular level. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of BoNT on cells essential for wound healing in vitro. Therefore, primary human keratinocytes and endothelial cells were treated with different concentrations of BoNT and tested on proliferation, migration, and angiogenic behavior., Methods: BoNT was exposed to human keratinocytes and endothelial cells in a low (1 IU/mL), medium (10 IU/mL), and high (20 IU/mL) concentrations in cell culture. Proliferation and migration of the 2 cell types were observed and also the angiogenic potential of endothelial cells in vitro., Results: BoNT 20 IU/mL negatively influenced proliferation and migration of keratinocytes but not those of endothelial cells. Angiogenesis in vitro was less effective with the highest BoNT concentrations tested. Low concentrations of BoNT supported sprouting of endothelial cells., Conclusions: High concentrations of botulinum toxin interfered with wound closure as keratinocytes' proliferation and migration were deteriorated. Furthermore, BoNT concentrations of 20 IU/mL constrain in vitro vessel formation but do not influence proliferation or migration of endothelial cells., Competing Interests: The authors have no financial interest to declare in relation to the content of this article. The Article Processing Charge was paid for by the authors.

Background: Split-thickness skin grafting is the gold standard to cover extensive acute and chronic wounds with a well-vascularized wound bed. Although some headway has been made in developing biological agents to speed up healing, there is still no treatment that sufficiently replaces skin grafts to date. The use of secretory factors of adipose tissue may be a feasible approach to developing topical wound applications for faster wound healing., Methods: In this study, the effect of conditioned media (CMs) of human adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs), adipocytes, or adipose tissue on human skin cells was evaluated for viability, proliferation, and migration in vitro. Differentiation potential of stem cells treated with CM was monitored by AdipoRed staining and qualitative real-time polymerase chain reaction. Angiogenic potential of human endothelial cells treated with CM was tested via sprouting assay., Results: The CM of adipose tissue significantly enhanced ASC proliferation (P < 0.01). Treatment with CM showed no inductive effect on ASC differentiation into adipocytes but, at the same time, significantly induced cell sprouting of endothelial cells (P < 0.001). We show for the first time that CM of adipose tissue is a potent inducer of proliferation of ASCs and angiogenesis, with comparable effects with those of stem cell-enriched CM., Conclusions: We suggest the use of the secretome of adipose tissue to produce CM for topical application on wounds, rather than working with adipose tissue or including the difficult process of enriching the patients' stem cells in vitro.

We have previously reported that intermediate monocytes (CD14(++)/CD16(+)) were increased in colorectal cancer (CRC) patients, while the subset of pro-angiogenic TIE2-expressing monocytes (TEMs) was not significantly elevated. This study was designed to evaluate changes in frequency and function of intermediate monocytes and TEMs during chemotherapy and anti-angiogenic cancer treatment and their relation to treatment response. Monocyte populations were determined by flow cytometry in 60 metastasized CRC (mCRC) patients who received neoadjuvant chemotherapy with or without bevacizumab. Blood samples were taken before treatment, after two therapy cycles, at the end of neoadjuvant therapy and immediately before surgical resection of liver metastases. Neoadjuvant treatment resulted in a significant increase in circulating intermediate monocytes which was most pronounced after two cycles and positively predicted tumor response (AUC = 0.875, p = 0.005). With a cut-off value set to 1% intermediate monocytes of leukocytes, this parameter showed a predictive sensitivity and specificity of 75% and 88%. Anti-angiogenic therapy with bevacizumab had no impact on monocyte populations including TEMs. In 15 patients and six healthy controls, the gene expression profile and the migratory behavior of monocyte subsets was evaluated. The profile of intermediate monocytes suggested functions in antigen presentation, inflammatory cytokine production, chemotaxis and was remarkably stable during chemotherapy. Intermediate monocytes showed a preferential migratory response to tumor-derived signals in vitro and correlated with the level of CD14(+)/CD16(+) monocytic infiltrates in the resected tumor tissue. In conclusion, the rapid rise of intermediate monocytes during chemotherapy may offer a simple marker for response prediction and a timely change in regimen.

Levosimendan is a positive inotropic drug for the treatment of acute decompensated heart failure (HF). Clinical trials showed that levosimendan was particularly effective in HF due to myocardial infarction. Myocardial necrosis induces a strong inflammatory response, involving chemoattractants guiding polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) into the infarcted myocardial tissue. Our aim was to examine whether levosimendan exhibits anti-inflammatory effects on human adult cardiac myocytes (HACM) and human heart microvascular endothelial cells (HHMEC). Cardiac myocytes and endothelial cells were stimulated with interleukin-1β (IL)-1β (200 U/ml) and treated with levosimendan (0.1-10 µM) for 2-48 hours. IL-1β strongly induced expression of IL-6 and IL-8 in HACM and E-selectin and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) in HHMEC and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). Treatment with levosimendan strongly attenuated IL-1β-induced expression of IL-6 and IL-8 in HACM as well as E-selectin and ICAM-1 in ECs. Levosimendan treatment further reduced adhesion of PMN to activated endothelial cells under both static and flow conditions by approximately 50 %. Incubation with 5-hydroxydecanoic acid, a selective blocker of mitochondrial ATP-dependent potassium channels, partly abolished the above seen anti-inflammatory effects. Additionally, levosimendan strongly diminished IL-1β-induced reactive oxygen species and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) activity through inhibition of S536 phosphorylation. In conclusion, levosimendan exhibits anti-inflammatory effects on cardiac myocytes and endothelial cells in vitro. These findings could explain, at least in part, the beneficial effects of levosimendan after myocardial infarction.

Background: Monocytes reportedly contribute to liver regeneration. Three subsets have been identified to date: classical, intermediate, non-classical monocytes. The intermediate population and a subtype expressing TIE2 (TEMs) were suggested to promote angiogenesis. In a clinical setting, we investigated which monocyte subsets are regulated after liver resection and correlate with postoperative liver function., Methods: In 38 patients monocyte subsets were evaluated in blood and subhepatic wound fluid by flow cytometry before and 1-3 days after resection of colorectal liver metastases. The monocyte-regulating cytokines macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), transforming growth factor beta 1 (TGFβ1), and angiopoietin 2 (ANG-2) were measured in patient plasma by ELISA. C-reactive protein (CRP) and liver function parameters were retrieved from routine hospital analyses., Results: On post-operative day (POD) 1 blood monocytes shifted to significantly elevated levels of intermediate monocytes. In wound fluid, a delayed surge in intermediate monocytes was detected by POD 3. Furthermore, TEMs were highly enriched in wound fluid as compared to circulation. CRP and M-CSF levels were substantially increased in patient blood after surgery and correlated significantly with the frequency of intermediate monocytes. In addition, liver function parameters showed a significant association with intermediate monocyte levels on POD 3., Conclusions: The reportedly pro-angiogenic subsets of monocytes are selectively increased upon liver resection and accumulate next to the site of liver regeneration. As previously proposed by in vitro experiments, the release of CRP and M-CSF may trigger the induction of intermediate monocytes. The correlation with liver parameters points to a functional involvement of these monocyte populations in liver regeneration which warrants further investigation.

Nuclear inclusions of aggregated proteins have primarily been characterized for molecules with aberrant poly-glutamine repeats and for mutated or structurally altered proteins. They were termed "nuclear aggresomes" and misfolding was shown to promote association with molecular chaperones and proteasomes. Here, we report that two components of a transcriptional repressor complex (BCL-6 and BCoR) of wildtype amino acid sequence can independently or jointly induce the formation of nuclear aggregates when overexpressed. The observation that the majority of cells rapidly downregulate BCL-6/BCoR levels, supports the notion that expression of these proteins is under tight control. The inclusions occur when BCL-6/BCoR expression exceeds 150-fold of endogenous levels. They preferentially develop in the nucleus by a gradual increase in aggregate size to form large, spheroid structures which are not associated with heat shock proteins or marked by ubiquitin. In contrast, we find the close association of BCL-6/BCoR inclusions with PML bodies and a reduction in aggregation upon the concomitant overexpression of histone deacetylases or heat shock protein 70. In summary, our data offer a perspective on nuclear aggregates distinct from classical "nuclear aggresomes": Large complexes of spheroid structure can evolve in the nucleus without being marked by the cellular machinery for protein refolding and degradation. However, nuclear proteostasis can be restored by balancing the levels of chaperones.

Molecular chimerism is a promising strategy to induce tolerance to disease-causing antigens expressed on genetically modified haematopoietic stem cells. The approach was employed successfully in models of autoimmunity and organ transplantation. Recently, we demonstrated that molecular chimerism induces robust and lasting tolerance towards the major grass pollen allergen Phl p 5. Since allergens are a group of antigens differing widely in their function, origin and structure we further examined the effectiveness of molecular chimerism using the Phl p 5-unrelated major birch pollen allergen Bet v 1, co-expressed with the reporter GFP. Besides, inhibition of CD26 was used to promote engraftment of modified stem cells. Retrovirus VSV-Betv1-GFP was generated to transduce 5-FU-mobilized BALB/c hematopoietic cells to express membrane-bound Bet v 1 (VSV-GFP virus was used as control). Myeloablated BALB/c mice received Betv1-GFP or GFP expressing bone marrow cells, pre-treated with a CD26 inhibitor. Chimerism was followed by flow cytometry. Tolerance was assessed by measuring allergen-specific isotype levels in sera, RBL assays and T-cell proliferation assays. Mice transplanted with transduced BMC developed multi-lineage molecular chimerism which remained stable long-term (>8 months). After repeated immunizations with Bet v 1 and Phl p 5 serum levels of Bet v 1-specific antibodies (IgE, IgG1, IgG2a, IgG3 and IgA) remained undetectable in Betv1-GFP chimeras while high levels of Phl p 5-specific antibodies developed. Likewise, basophil degranulation was induced in response to Phl p 5 but not to Bet v 1 and specific non-responsiveness to Bet v 1 was observed in proliferation assays. These data demonstrate successful tolerization towards Bet v 1 by molecular chimerism. Stable long-term chimerism was achieved under inhibition of CD26. These results provide evidence for the broad applicability of molecular chimerism as tolerance strategy in allergy., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier GmbH. All rights reserved.)

High titers of anti-vimentin antibodies after transplantation are known to be associated with poor long-term graft survival. Vimentin is an intracellular protein which is present in different isoforms in the cell. In a previous study with sera from hemodialysis patients on the kidney transplantation waiting list we could show that only a 49 kDa and a 60 kDa isoform are recognized by patients' anti-vimentin antibodies while the other isoforms remain undetected. However, it is still unclear whether antibodies against this intracellular protein can bind to intact cells. Here we show that vimentin can be present on the cell surface under certain conditions. Lymphocytes from healthy volunteers were used as a model for allogeneic cells. We could show by immunofluorescence microscopy, flow cytometry and Western blot experiments that concanavalin A (Con A) activated lymphocytes express a 49 kDa vimentin isoform on their cell surface while the 60 kDa isoform remains inaccessible from the outside. This expression is associated with an increased binding of sera from hemodialysis patients which were positive for anti-vimentin antibodies. These results suggest that cell activation enhances binding of anti-vimentin antibodies to intact cells which might contribute to chronic allograft nephropathy., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

We have conducted the first study to determine the diagnostic potential of the CD14++CD16+ intermediate monocytes as compared to the pro-angiogenic subset of CD14++CD16+TIE2+ TIE2-expressing monocytes (TEMs) in cancer. These monocyte populations were investigated by flow cytometry in healthy volunteers (N = 32) and in colorectal carcinoma patients with localized (N = 24) or metastatic (N = 37) disease. We further determined blood levels of cytokines associated with monocyte regulation. The results revealed the intermediate monocyte subset to be significantly elevated in colorectal cancer patients and to show the highest frequencies in localized disease. Multivariate regression analysis identified intermediate monocytes as a significant independent variable in cancer prediction. With a cut-off value at 0.37% (intermediate monocytes of total leukocytes) the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity ranged at 69% and 81%, respectively. In contrast, TEM levels were elevated in localized cancer but did not differ significantly between groups and none of the cytokines correlated with monocyte subpopulations. Of interest, in vitro analyses supported the observation that intermediate monocytes were more potently induced by primary as opposed to metastatic cancer cells which may relate to the immunosuppressive milieu established in the advanced stage of metastatic disease. In conclusion, intermediate monocytes as compared to TIE2-expressing monocytes are a more sensitive diagnostic indicator of colorectal cancer.

Introduction: Soluble P-selectin plays a pivotal role in inflammation and the development of thrombotic and cardiovascular disease. Accordingly, elevated levels of soluble P-selectin are found in periodontitis and (other forms of) inflammatory diseases. However, the cellular source of soluble P-selectin in periodontitis and the effects of periodontopathogens on P-selectin release are unknown., Material and Methods: Soluble P-selectin was determined in 26 patients with periodontitis and 19 controls. Furthermore, human endothelial cells and platelets were investigated for their ability to elicit soluble and surface P-selectin in response to periodontopathogens A. actinomycetemcomitans Y4 and P. gingivalis. Moreover surface E-selectin and ICAM-1 expression as well as NFκB translocation in response to these bacteria were determined on endothelial cells as well as the formation of platelet-leukocyte complexes., Results: Plasma levels of soluble P-selectin are significantly elevated in periodontitis and correlate with severity of disease and bacterial infection. Stimulation of endothelial cells with periodontopathogens results in rapid surface expression of P-selectin but does not induce NFκB translocation and subsequent de novo synthesis of P-selectin, E-selectin or ICAM-1. In platelets, bacterial stimulation leads to surface expression of P-selectin and fosters the formation of platelet-leukocyte aggregates within minutes. P-selectin is rapidly shed from the surface of platelets and endothelial cells and results in increased levels of soluble P-selectin., Conclusions: Periodontopathogens are able to directly cause activation of endothelial cells and platelets within minutes. Given that transient periodontitis-associated bacteremia commonly occurs after tooth brushing or chewing, our data suggest that reduction of periodontopathogens might result in potential cardiovascular benefits., (Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Neutralizing Abs to type I IFNs are of therapeutic significance, i.e., are currently evaluated for the treatment of autoimmune diseases with pathogenic IFN-alpha production such as for systemic lupus erythematosus. Unexpectedly, we observed that several neutralizing Abs reportedly known to counteract IFN-alpha or IFN-beta activity triggered an "IFN-like" response in quiescent primary human endothelial cells leading to activation of the transcription factor IFN-stimulated gene factor 3 and the expression of IFN-responsive genes. Furthermore, these Abs were found to enhance rather than inhibit type I IFN signals, and the effect was also detectable for distinct other cell types such as PBMCs. The stimulatory capacity of anti-IFN-alpha/beta Abs was mediated by the constitutive autocrine production of "subthreshold" IFN levels, involved the type I IFNR and was dependent on the Fc Ab domain, as Fab or F(ab')(2) fragments potently inhibited IFN activity. We thus propose that a combined effect of IFN recognition by the Ab paratope and the concomitant engagement of the Fc domain may trigger an IFN signal via the respective type I IFNR, which accounts for the observed IFN-like response to the neutralizing Abs. With respect to clinical applications, the finding may be of importance for the design of recombinant Abs vs Fab or F(ab')(2) fragments to efficiently counteract IFN activity without undesirable activating effects.