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Purpose: The rollout of individualised disability funding in Australia resulted in an increased demand for services for people with a disability, particularly support for the high percentage of Australians with autism spectrum disorder. Continuing professional development is one way to grow and maintain a skilled workforce; however, face-to-face opportunities can be limited in remote areas of Australia. Technology may provide a low-cost and widely accessible platform for providing education and support for staff in these areas. Design/methodology/approach: The current study evaluated a novel webinar training and individual online support program for 36 allied health, education and community support staff. Data were collected via a survey on changes in perceived "knowledge and skills" and "confidence" in supporting children with autism, as well as mode of participation, and accessibility of the program. Findings: Participants reported a significant increase in their "knowledge and skills" and "confidence", in working with children with autism. This increase was positively related to the number of webinars the participants accessed. The mode of webinar access was predominantly via watching recordings of webinars (asynchronous learning). Synchronous learning via individual online sessions was accessed by a small number of participants, mostly allied health professionals. Workload and scheduling were identified as barriers to engaging in the program. The technology platform was found to be accessible and acceptable. Originality/value: A predominantly asynchronous mode of delivery was successful, thereby increasing program access and flexibility for remote staff. Technology was not a barrier to accessing the program regardless of remoteness or job role.

Introduction: This study compares the experiences of high school students with visual impairments (that is, those who are blind or have low vision) in and out of school. Methods: Twelve visually impaired high school students completed the same in-the-moment survey seven times daily for seven consecutive days. The frequencies of their activities, interactions, and ratings of internal variables (fitting in, acceptance, loneliness, and enjoyment) were compared across three contexts: home, school, and other (neither home nor school) contexts. Results: Participants spent much of their time out of school alone at home. They rated leisure and structured recreation in "other" locations as their most enjoyable activities. Doing nothing at school was the least positively rated activity. Participants fitted in significantly less and felt significantly less accepted at school than elsewhere. A large proportion of school interactions involved receiving help; few involved giving help. Participants with additional disabilities reported more school social challenges than their peers who were only visually impaired. Discussion and implications for practitioners: This study highlights the subjective dimensions of choice in everyday life. The social impact of doing nothing at school provides an imperative for staff members to ensure that adolescents with visual impairments can participate in lessons. Staff may also need to facilitate opportunities for these students to reciprocate with peers. Adolescents with visual impairments highly value activities with friends out of home and, as with most adolescents, may need to lean on their families for assistance in this area until they can participate in such activities independently.

Introduction: This study explores the social experiences in high school of students with visual impairments. Methods: Experience sampling methodology was used to examine (a) how socially included students with visual impairments feel, (b) the internal qualities of their activities, and (c) the factors that influence a sense of inclusion. Twelve students, including three with additional disabilities, completed the Psychological Sense of School Membership (PSSM) questionnaire as a measure of inclusion. They were subsequently asked to complete an in-the-moment survey seven times daily for one week using an iOS device. This survey asked about activities and ratings of internal variables: fitting in, acceptance, loneliness, awareness, and enjoyment. Each student was also interviewed. Z-scores were created for internal variables and correlations calculated to examine relationships between experiences, PSSM, and demographic variables. Results: This group felt included as measured by the PSSM (m = 4.24, SD = 0.67). Students' most frequent activity was classwork. Doing nothing rated most negatively and was described as time wasting. Out-of-class activities were rated most positively. In the three participants with additional disabilities, it appeared that the presence of this additional disability negatively influenced a sense of inclusion (rb = -0.67, p < 0.05), fitting in (rb = -0.86, p < 0.05), enjoyment (rb = -0.65, p < 0.05), and loneliness (rb = 0.88, p < 0.05). Interviews revealed a lack of common ground between adolescents with both visual impairments and additional disabilities and their peers. Discussion and implications for practitioners: These students worked hard to maintain parity with peers and found school more enjoyable if they fit in. It is important to provide discreet and timely access to the curriculum. Friendships require time, common interests, and reciprocity. There may be potential to further explore out-of-class clubs as a means of supporting friendship development. In addition, findings suggest that students with additional disabilities are not likely to feel included. Because this population comprises the majority of visually impaired students, this result has serious implications for practitioners and should be examined in future research.

Outdoor play is important for children's development and an area in which many children with disabilities struggle at school. The aim of this multiple-perspective case study was to understand educator play decision-making for children with disabilities within one low socioeconomic status and culturally and linguistically diverse community. Data collection included playground observations of children with disabilities and educators and interviews with teaching assistants, teachers, and a vice principal. Data were analysed inductively and thematically, with findings aligned to the capabilities approach. School staff and typically developing children appeared to not value the children with disabilities as players or learners, and had a limited understanding of the children's home and community play environments. School staff had low expectations of children with disabilities' play and learning capacities. Participants perceived children's playground presence and not breaking rules as sufficient. Despite educators stating that children with disabilities had choice on the playground, the children experienced few meaningful choices due to relative skills delays and an unsupportive environment. Applying the capabilities approach may lead to greater choice through valuing all children as learners, players, and community members; raising play and learning expectations; and creating play spaces that support the play of all children.

Individuals with an autism spectrum disorder commonly have limited social participation. This study aimed to examine the similarities and differences of everyday participation among males and females with autism spectrum disorder in Australia and Taiwan, using an experience sampling methodology. A total of 14 Australians (4 males, aged 16-43 years) and 16 Taiwanese (12 males, aged 19-45 years) with autism spectrum disorder who are cognitively able were asked to carry a device which prompted them seven times per day for 7 days, to record everyday participation: where they were, what they were doing, and who they were with. Multilevel analyses were used to identify the relationships between everyday participation and associated factors including gender, country of residence, clinical severity of autism spectrum disorder, and social anxiety. The results showed that Taiwanese participants were more likely to stay at home than Australian participants. However, female participants were more likely to engage in social situations than males. Furthermore, participants with fewer autism spectrum disorder symptoms and those with higher levels of social anxiety were less likely to engage in social interactions. This study sheds light on ways that culture and gender affect social participation and highlights the relationship of social anxiety to social participation. The findings have implications for interventions for social participation.

Background: Children are motivated to engage in stereotypic and repetitive behaviours for a number of reasons. Their motivation seems to change according to context, but little empirical evidence supports that observation. Interventions designed to reduce the behaviours may be improved by an increased understanding of the interaction between motivation and context. Method: Using Rasch analysis, we analysed data describing stereotypic behaviours from 279 Revised Motivation Assessment Scales (MAS:R). Data were gathered from two groups of children: Group 1 with intellectual disability (n = 37) and Group 2 with both intellectual disability and autism (n = 37). We examined behaviours in three contexts: free time, transition and while engaged in tasks. MAS:R distinguishes two intrinsic motivators: enhanced sensation and decreased anxiety and three extrinsic motivators: seeking attention or objects or escape. Results: Significant differences in motivators were observed during free time and transition. No one motivator predominated while children were engaged in tasks. For both groups, sensory enhancement was a more likely motivator in free time and anxiety reduction was a more likely motivator during transition. Transition was the context most likely to influence extrinsic motivators, but there were significant differences between the groups. Conclusions: Context influences the motivation for stereotyped and repetitive behaviours. Transition has a particularly powerful effect.

Because leisure activities are often viewed as optional, their value to people with disabilities may not be recognized. This study explored the benefits of leisure activities for eight young people who are blind. These activities provided them with supportive relationships, a desirable identity, experiences of power and control, and experiences of social justice. They enabled the young people we studied to thrive despite adversity. (Contains 1 table.)

Measurement of quality of life is becoming increasingly important in health care. Self-reported quality of life is the preferred method of gathering this information, but children are often excluded from this process, their input being replaced by parent-proxy report. This feasibility study tested assessment of "daily" quality-of-life by a self-reported computerized method in boys with neuromuscular disorders. To establish feasibility, the method was required to be engaging, consistent, and convenient. Ten boys, aged 9-16 years, were given a personal digital assistant (PDA) and prompted randomly, eight times/day for 1 week, to answer 19 questions about their daily experiences (including happiness, mood, self-esteem, location, and activity). Subjects completed sampling with an acceptable response rate (79%). Split-week reliability analysis for participant variability (r = 0.45-0.88) indicated acceptable consistency. Participants reported that the method was easy and convenient, and analysis of standardized mean scores supported internal validity. The computerized method to assess "daily" quality of life, from the child's perspective, was feasible and may be useful to understand the impact of disease progression and interventions on day-to-day function. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

This study provides evidence for intrinsic and extrinsic motivators for stereotypical and repetitive behavior in children with autism and intellectual disability and children with intellectual disability alone. We modified the Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS) (1988b); dividing it into intrinsic and extrinsic measures and adding items to assess anxiety as an intrinsic motivator. Rasch analysis of data from 279 MASs (74 children) revealed that the items formed two unidimensional scales. Anxiety was a more likely intrinsic motivator than sensory seeking for children with dual diagnoses; the reverse was true for children with intellectual disability only. Escape and gaining a tangible object were the most common extrinsic motivators for those with dual diagnoses and attention and escape for children with intellectual disability.

School playgrounds offer everyday opportunities for physically active and social play that combats obesity, develops skills, and promotes well-being. However, teachers' fear of the legal consequences of injury can elicit over-zealous risk reduction with the result that playgrounds lack challenge, and the potential benefits of play become limited. In this research, we trialled a simple, cost-effective strategy to encourage children to be more active and social on a school playground. Over 11 weeks, we made available materials with no fixed purpose (e.g. car tires, boxes) to a playground of children aged five to seven. Accelerometers showed children became significantly more active. Interviews with teachers suggested children also became more social, creative, and resilient. However, despite no incidence of injuries, teachers perceived an increased risk and encountered dilemmas regarding duty of care. We conclude that future interventions should address issues of 'surplus safety' at individual, school, system, and policy levels.

Construct validity of the Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS) (Durand, Crimmins, The Motivation Assessment Scale 1988) was studied using Rasch analysis data from 67 children (246 MASs), with dual diagnosis of autism and intellectual disability or with intellectual disability only. Results failed to support the proposed unidimensional construct or the original 4-factor structure. Some motivators appear to form a unidimensional construct: "to gain attention", "to gain a tangible object", and "to escape". There was evidence that sensory stimulation represents a different construct. Children with intellectual disability were more apt to be motivated by desire to gain a tangible item or attention. Children with the dual diagnoses were more apt to have sensory stimulation or escape from task demand as a motivator for stereotypic and repetitive behavior.

A study compared correlation coefficients for a sample of 109 children with disabilities with those of 51 typically developing children. A positive, significant correlation was found between playfulness and environmental supportiveness. The magnitude of the relationship was greater for typically developing children than for those with disabilities. (Contains 35 references.) (JOW)

A study examined reliability and validity of the Test of Playfulness (ToP) with 25 children who have physical disabilities but no cognitive limitations, comparing their scores with those of able-bodied peers and examining patterns of difference in test items between groups. The mean ToP scores of the two groups did not differ. (Contains 33 references.) (Author/JOW)

Scores on the Test of Playfulness for 25 children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) were significantly lower than those of 25 children without, especially on internal control, intrinsic motivation, and framing. Three items (mischief, teasing/joking, clowning) yielded unexpectedly higher scores for ADHD children. (SK)

An assessment and intervention process for use by occupational and physical therapists working in schools is described. The process addresses discrepancies between performance and expectations, establishment of goals and objectives, determination of needed services, determination of service delivery setting, and provision of efficient and effective intervention. (DB)

Objective: To compare the health of young unemployed Australians during a period of low unemployment (April 2007: rate 4.4%) against published Australian norms for 18-24 year olds and unemployed people during a time of higher unemployment (February 1995 to January 1996: rate 8.1% to 8.9%). Methods: Two hundred and fifty-one unemployed 18-25 year olds residing in New South Wales completed the SF36 Health Survey version 2 (SF36v2) during a time of low unemployment. SF36v2 subscale and component summary scores were compared with published norms for 18-24 year olds and for unemployed persons during a time of higher unemployment. Results: Young unemployed people during a period of low unemployment reported poorer health in all areas when compared with age-matched norms and poorer psychological health when compared with the published norms for unemployed people from a time when unemployment rates were higher. Conclusions: The health of young unemployed individuals during a time of low unemployment was poor when compared to both the general population and to unemployed people during a time of higher unemployment. Implications: Public health interventions must focus on improving the health of young unemployed people to support their engagement with and contribution to Australian society. Key words: Unemployment, economic conditions, health status, Australia