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Background: Procedural learning refers to rule-based motor skill learning and storage. It involves the cerebellum, striatum and motor areas of the frontal lobe network. Fragile X syndrome, which has been linked with anatomical abnormalities within the striatum, may result in implicit procedural learning deficit. Methods: To address this issue, a serial reaction time (RT) task including six blocks of trials was performed by 14 individuals with fragile X syndrome, 12 individuals with Down syndrome and 12 mental age-matched control subjects. The first (B1) and fifth (B5) blocks were random whereas the others (B2, B3, B4 and B6) consisted of a repeated 10-step sequence. Results were analysed by Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance and Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Results: For patients with fragile X syndrome, the RT was highly suggestive of preserved implicit learning as a significant difference was observed between blocks B5 and B6 (P = 0.009). However, the difference of RT between B4 and B5 did not reach significance, possibly due to a subgroup of individuals who did not learn. In contrast, in the Down syndrome group, RT decreased significantly between B4 and B5 (W = 2; P = 0.003) but not between the last ordered block (B6) and the last random block (B5), suggesting a weakness in procedural learning which was sensitive to the interfering random block. Conclusion: Implicit learning is variable in genetic syndromes and therefore relatively independent of general intellectual capacities. The results are discussed together with previous reports.

The ARX ( Aristaless Related homeoboX ) gene was identified in 2002 as responsible for XLAG syndrome, a lissencephaly characterized by an almost complete absence of cortical GABAergic interneurons, and for milder forms of X-linked Intellectual Disability (ID) without apparent brain abnormalities. The most frequent mutation found in the ARX gene, a duplication of 24 base pairs (c.429_452dup24) in exon 2, results in a recognizable syndrome in which patients present ID without primary motor impairment, but with a very specific upper limb distal motor apraxia associated with a pathognomonic hand-grip, described as developmental Limb Kinetic Apraxia (LKA). In this study, we first present ARX expression during human fetal brain development showing that it is strongly expressed in GABAergic neuronal progenitors during the second and third trimester of pregnancy. We show that although ARX expression strongly decreases towards the end of gestation, it is still present after birth in some neurons of the basal ganglia, thalamus and cerebral cortex, suggesting that ARX also plays a role in more mature neuron functioning. Then, using morphometric brain MRI in 13 ARX patients carrying c.429_452dup24 mutation and in 13 sex- and age-matched healthy controls, we show that ARX patients have a significantly decreased volume of several brain structures including the striatum (and more specifically the caudate nucleus), hippocampus and thalamus as well as decreased precentral gyrus cortical thickness. We observe a significant correlation between caudate nucleus volume reduction and motor impairment severity quantified by kinematic parameter of precision grip. As basal ganglia are known to regulate sensorimotor processing and are involved in the control of precision gripping, the combined decrease in cortical thickness of primary motor cortex and basal ganglia volume in ARX dup24 patients is very likely the anatomical substrate of this developmental form of LKA.

Methyl-CpG-binding protein 2 (MECP2) deleterious variants, which are responsible for Rett syndrome in girls, are involved in a wide spectrum of developmental disabilities in males. A neuropsychiatric phenotype without intellectual disability is uncommon in patients with MECP2 deleterious variants. We report on two dizygotic twins with an MECP2-related psychiatric disorder without intellectual disability. Neuropsychological and psychiatric phenotype assessments were performed, and a genetic analysis was carried out. Both patients fulfilled the Pervasive Developmental Disorder criteria on Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule and Asperger syndrome criteria on Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. (DSM-IV). One patient developed early-onset schizophrenia (DSM-IV criteria) with two acute psychotic episodes, the latest one following corticosteroids and sodium valproate intake, with major hyperammonemia. A novel MECP2 gene transversion c.491 G>T [p.(Ser164Ile)] was found in both twins. Pathogenicity of this variant was considered on the basis of strong clinical and molecular data. The underlying molecular basis of neuropsychiatric disorders may have important consequences on genetic counseling and therapeutic strategies.

Background: Intellectual Disability (ID) is characterized by deficits in intellectual functions such as reasoning, problem-solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, and learning. As new avenues are emerging for treatment of genetically determined ID (such as Down's syndrome or Fragile X syndrome), it is necessary to identify objective reliable and sensitive outcome measures for use in clinical trials., Objective: We developed a novel visual analogical reasoning paradigm, inspired by the Progressive Raven's Matrices, but appropriate for Intellectually Disabled patients. This new paradigm assesses reasoning and inhibition abilities in ID patients., Methods: We performed behavioural analyses for this task (with a reaction time and error rate analysis, Study 1) in 96 healthy controls (adults and typically developed children older than 4) and 41 genetically determined ID patients (Fragile X syndrome, Down syndrome and ARX mutated patients). In order to establish and quantify the cognitive strategies used to solve the task, we also performed an eye-tracking analysis (Study 2)., Results: Down syndrome, ARX and Fragile X patients were significantly slower and made significantly more errors than chronological age-matched healthy controls. The effect of inhibition on error rate was greater than the matrix complexity effect in ID patients, opposite to findings in adult healthy controls. Interestingly, ID patients were more impaired by inhibition than mental age-matched healthy controls, but not by the matrix complexity. Eye-tracking analysis made it possible to identify the strategy used by the participants to solve the task. Adult healthy controls used a matrix-based strategy, whereas ID patients used a response-based strategy. Furthermore, etiologic-specific reasoning differences were evidenced between ID patients groups., Conclusion: We suggest that this paradigm, appropriate for ID patients and developmental populations as well as adult healthy controls, provides an objective and quantitative assessment of visual analogical reasoning and cognitive inhibition, enabling testing for the effect of pharmacological or behavioural intervention in these specific populations.

Background: The c.429_452dup24 of the ARX gene is a rare genetic anomaly, leading to X-Linked Intellectual Disability without brain malformation. While in certain cases c.429_452dup24 has been associated with specific clinical patterns such as Partington syndrome, the consequence of this mutation has been also often classified as "non-specific Intellectual Disability". The present work aims at a more precise description of the clinical features linked to the c.429_452dup24 mutation., Methods: We clinically reviewed all affected patients identified in France over a five-year period, i.e. 27 patients from 12 different families. Detailed cognitive, behavioural, and motor evaluation, as well as standardized videotaped assessments of oro-lingual and gestural praxis, were performed. In a sub-group of 13 ARX patients, kinematic and MRI studies were further accomplished to better characterize the motor impairment prevalent in the ARX patients group. To ensure that data were specific to the ARX gene mutation and did not result from low-cognitive functioning per se, a group of 27 age- and IQ-matched Down syndrome patients served as control., Results: Neuropsychological and motor assessment indicated that the c.429_452dup24 mutation constitutes a recognizable clinical syndrome: ARX patients exhibiting Intellectual Disability, without primary motor impairment, but with a very specific upper limb distal motor apraxia associated with a pathognomonic hand-grip. Patients affected with the so-called Partington syndrome, which involves major hand dystonia and orolingual apraxia, exhibit the most severe symptoms of the disorder. The particular "reach and grip" impairment which was observed in all ARX patients, but not in Down syndrome patients, was further characterized by the kinematic data: (i) loss of preference for the index finger when gripping an object, (ii) major impairment of fourth finger deftness, and (iii) a lack of pronation movements. This lack of distal movement coordination exhibited by ARX patients is associated with the loss of independent digital dexterity and is similar to the distortion of individual finger movements and posture observed in Limb Kinetic Apraxia., Conclusion: These findings suggest that the ARX c.429_452dup24 mutation may be a developmental model for Limb Kinetic Apraxia.

FG syndrome, Lujan syndrome, and Ohdo syndrome, the Maat-Kievit-Brunner type, have been described as distinct syndromes with overlapping non-specific features and different missense mutations of the MED12 gene have been reported in all of them. We report a family including 10 males and 1 female affected with profound non-specific intellectual disability (ID) which was linked to a 30-cM region extending from Xp11.21 (ALAS2) to Xq22.3 (COL4A5). Parallel sequencing of all X-chromosome exons identified a frameshift mutation (c.5898dupC) of MED12. Mutated mRNA was not affected by non-sense mediated RNA decay and induced an additional abnormal isoform due to activation of cryptic splice-sites in exon 41. Dysmorphic features common to most affected males were long narrow face, high forehead, flat malar area, high nasal bridge, and short philtrum. Language was absent or very limited. Most patients had a friendly personality. Cognitive impairment, varying from borderline to profound ID was similarly observed in seven heterozygous females. There was no correlation between cognitive function and X-chromosome inactivation profiles in blood cells. The severe degree of ID in male patients, as well as variable cognitive impairment in heterozygous females suggests that the duplication observed in the present family may have a more severe effect on MED12 function than missense mutations. In a cognitively impaired male from this family, who also presented with tall stature and dysmorphism and did not have the MED12 mutation, a 600-kb duplication at 17p13.3 including the YWHAE gene, was found in a mosaic state., (© 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

We report an 11-year-old girl for whom the diagnosis of cri du chat syndrome (CdCS) was made during a genetic investigation of childhood apraxia of speech. The patient presented with the classic chromosome 5 short arm deletion found in CdCS. The microdeletion, characterised using aCGH (array Comparative Genomic Hybridisation), was 12.85 Mb, overlapping the 5p15.2 and 5p15.3 critical regions. CdCS is typically associated with severe mental retardation while this patient had normal intellectual performance, confirmed by normal results from categorisation tasks. This mild phenotype was assessed using a comprehensive cognitive battery. Language evaluation showed normal receptive vocabulary scores, in contrast with obvious oro-facial dyspraxia. Disabled fine motor skills were confirmed as well as weak visuo-spatial reasoning abilities. In conclusion, fine cognitive assessment may be worthwhile for patients with CdCS since good intellectual functioning may be masked by severe speech and gestural dyspraxia, thus requiring specific teaching and rehabilitation strategies., (Copyright © 2012 Elsevier Masson SAS. All rights reserved.)

Fragile X syndrome (FXS) is an X-linked condition associated with intellectual disability and behavioral problems. It is caused by expansion of a CGG repeat in the 5' untranslated region of the fragile X mental retardation 1 (FMR1) gene. This mutation is associated with hypermethylation at the FMR1 promoter and resultant transcriptional silencing. FMR1 silencing has many consequences, including up-regulation of metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5)-mediated signaling. mGluR5 receptor antagonists have shown promise in preclinical FXS models and in one small open-label study of FXS. We examined whether a receptor subtype-selective inhibitor of mGluR5, AFQ056, improves the behavioral symptoms of FXS in a randomized, double-blind, two-treatment, two-period, crossover study of 30 male FXS patients aged 18 to 35 years. We detected no significant effects of treatment on the primary outcome measure, the Aberrant Behavior Checklist-Community Edition (ABC-C) score, at day 19 or 20 of treatment. In an exploratory analysis, however, seven patients with full FMR1 promoter methylation and no detectable FMR1 messenger RNA improved, as measured with the ABC-C, significantly more after AFQ056 treatment than with placebo (P < 0.001). We detected no response in 18 patients with partial promoter methylation. Twenty-four patients experienced an adverse event, which was mostly mild to moderately severe fatigue or headache. If confirmed in larger and longer-term studies, these results suggest that blockade of the mGluR5 receptor in patients with full methylation at the FMR1 promoter may show improvement in the behavioral attributes of FXS.

The modulatory role of the cerebellum was investigated in a case with rhombencephalosynapsis (RS), a rare dysplasia characterized by the absence of the cerebellar vermis. The visual psychophysical task involved localizing a target and ignoring a distractor appearing either before, at the same time as, or after the target. It allowed us to assess reactivity to warning signals, distraction, and reactivity to signals appearing during attentive processing. Compared with a control sample, the patient exhibited greater reactivity to warning signals and difficulties interrupting attentive processing, whereas distraction was not increased. Complementary analyses showed that these deficits did not reflect just delayed development of attentional processes. These results suggest that the cerebellum modulates responsiveness and commands attentional/exploratory flexibility in response to sensory signals., ((c) 2009 APA, all rights reserved.)

Background: Rab-GDI mutations are responsible for "pure" mental deficiency, without any specific clinical features or brain malformation. Therefore, screening for mutations in mentally retarded patients is not available on a routine basis. Moreover, neuronal networks involved in mental deficiency still remain largely unknown., Methods: We performed a fine neuropsychological and imaging study in five patients from two unrelated families, affected with mental deficiency due to a mutation in the Rab-GDI gene. High resolution 3D brain MRI of the five mentally retarded adult males (mean age 33 years) were compared to MRI of 14 healthy males (mean age 35 years) using a Voxel-Based Morphometric analysis (VBM)., Results: All patients had isolated moderate mental retardation (WAIS-III IQ range, 41-50; mean 45) without specific morphological or behavioural features. No obvious brain abnormality was observed on visual inspection of individual scans. Using VBM analysis, Rab-GDI mutated patients' MRIs exhibited significant brain changes compared to normal subjects (p<0.05, corrected for multiple comparisons): increased grey matter density in left cerebellum and in left angular gyrus, decreased grey matter volume in thalami, decreased white matter density in prefrontal lobes, right fusiform occipito-temporal gyrus, and decreased white matter volume in cerebellar peduncles., Conclusions: These morphological changes observed in Rab-GDI mutated patients, mainly localized in the cerebello-thalamo-prefrontal pathway, are consistent with the hypothesis that the cerebellum is one of the critical components of a global learning network. Our results open new avenues in the diagnosis of non-specific mental deficiency using gene-specific "brain maps" as endophenotypes.