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Traumatic spinal cord injury (tSCI) has complex pathophysiological events that begin after the initial trauma. One such event is fibroglial scar formation by fibroblasts and reactive astrocytes. A strong inhibition of axonal growth is caused by the activated astroglial cells as a component of fibroglial scarring through the production of inhibitory molecules, such as chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans or myelin-associated proteins. Here, we used neural precursor cells (aldynoglia) as promoters of axonal growth and a fibrin hydrogel gelled under alkaline conditions to support and guide neuronal cell growth, respectively. We added Tol-51 sulfoglycolipid as a synthetic inhibitor of astrocyte and microglia in order to test its effect on the axonal growth-promoting function of aldynoglia precursor cells. We obtained an increase in GFAP expression corresponding to the expected glial phenotype for aldynoglia cells cultured in alkaline fibrin. In co-cultures of dorsal root ganglia (DRG) and aldynoglia, the axonal growth promotion of DRG neurons by aldynoglia was not affected. We observed that the neural precursor cells first clustered together and then formed niches from which aldynoglia cells grew and connected to groups of adjacent cells. We conclude that the combination of alkaline fibrin with synthetic sulfoglycolipid Tol-51 increased cell adhesion, cell migration, fasciculation, and axonal growth capacity, promoted by aldynoglia cells. There was no negative effect on the behavior of aldynoglia cells after the addition of sulfoglycolipid Tol-51, suggesting that a combination of aldynoglia plus alkaline fibrin and Tol-51 compound could be useful as a therapeutic strategy for tSCI repair.

Following spinal cord injury (SCI), the regenerative capacity of the central nervous system (CNS) is severely limited by the failure of axonal regeneration. The regeneration of CNS axons has been shown to occur by grafting predegenerated peripheral nerves (PPNs) and to be promoted by the transplantation of neural precursor cells (NPCs). The introduction of a combinatorial treatment of PPNs and NPCs after SCI has to address the additional problem of glial scar formation, which prevents regenerating axons from leaving the implant and making functional connections. Previously, we discovered that the synthetic sulfoglycolipid Tol-51 inhibits astrogliosis. The objective was to evaluate axonal regeneration and locomotor function improvement after SCI in rats treated with a combination of PPN, NPC, and Tol-51. One month after SCI, the scar tissue was removed and replaced with segments of PPN or PPN+Tol-51; PPN+NPC+Tol-51. The transplantation of a PPN segment favors regenerative axonal growth; in combination with Tol-51 and NPC, 30% of the labeled descending corticospinal axons were able to grow through the PPN and penetrate the caudal spinal cord. The animals treated with PPN showed significantly better motor function. Our data demonstrate that PPN implants plus NPC and Tol-51 allow successful axonal regeneration in the CNS.

The treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI) with uncultivated human bone marrow-derived stromal cells (bmSCs) prepared by negative selection has been proposed to be therapeutically superior to treatment with stem cells that were expanded in vitro. To explore their use in clinical trials, we studied the functional effects of delayed application at 7 days after SCI by testing different doses of bmSCs. Spinal cord contusion injury was induced in adult male Wistar rats at the thoracic level T9. Human bmSCs were prepared by negative selection without expansion in vitro (NeuroCells TM ). Treatment consisted of one 150 µL injection into the cisterna magna containing 0.5 or 2.5 million fresh bmSCs or 2.5 million bmSCs. The recovery of motor functions was evaluated during a surveillance period of six weeks (6 W), during which spinal cords were assessed histologically. Treatment resulted in a significant, dose-dependent therapeutic effect on the recovery of motor performance. The histological analysis revealed a lower degree of axonal degeneration and better survival of neurons and oligodendrocytes in bmSCs treated rats. Our results support delayed intrathecal application of bmSCs prepared by negative selection without expansion in vitro as a treatment of SCI.

Spinal cord injury is a traumatic lesion that causes a catastrophic condition in patients, resulting in neuronal deficit and loss of motor and sensory function. That loss is caused by secondary injury events following mechanical damage, which results in cell death. One of the most important events is inflammation, which activates molecules like proinflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) that provoke a toxic environment, inhibiting axonal growth and exacerbating CNS damage. As there is no effective treatment, one of the developed therapies is neuroprotection of the tissue to preserve healthy tissue. Among the strategies that have been developed are the use of cell therapy, the use of peptides, and molecules or supplements that have been shown to favor an anti-inflammatory environment that helps to preserve tissue and cells at the site of injury, thus favoring axonal growth and improved locomotor function. In this review, we will explain some of these strategies used in different animal models of spinal cord injury, their activity as modulators of the immune system, and the benefits they have shown.

Aldynoglia are growth-promoting cells with a morphology similar to radial glia and share properties and markers with astrocytes and Schwann cells. They are distributed in several locations throughout the adult central nervous system, where the cells of the aldynoglia interact and respond to the signals of the immune cells. After spinal cord injury (SCI), the functions of resident aldynoglia, identified as ependymocytes, tanycytes, and ependymal stem cells (EpSCs) of the spinal cord are crucial for the regeneration of spinal neural tissue. These glial cells facilitate axonal regrowth and remyelination of injured axons. Here, we review the influence of M1 or M2 macrophage/microglia subpopulations on the fate of EpSCs during neuroinflammation and immune responses in the acute, subacute, and chronic phases after SCI.

Traumatic spinal cord injury (TSCI) can cause paralysis and permanent disability. Rehabilitation (RB) is currently the only accepted treatment, although its beneficial effect is limited. The development of biomaterials has provided therapeutic possibilities for TSCI, where our research group previously showed that the plasma-synthesized polypyrrole/iodine (PPy/I), a biopolymer with different physicochemical characteristics than those of the PPy synthesized by conventional methods, promotes recovery of motor function after TSCI. The present study evaluated if the plasma-synthesized PPy/I applied in combination with RB could increase its beneficial effects and the mechanisms involved. Adult rats with TSCI were divided into no treatment (control); biopolymer (PPy/I); mixed RB by swimming and enriched environment (SW/EE); and combined treatment (PPy/I + SW/EE) groups. Eight weeks after TSCI, the general health of the animals that received any of the treatments was better than the control animals. Functional recovery evaluated by two scales was better and was achieved in less time with the PPy/I + SW/EE combination. All treatments significantly increased βIII-tubulin (nerve plasticity) expression, but only PPy/I increased GAP-43 (nerve regeneration) and MBP (myelination) expression when were analyzed by immunohistochemistry. The expression of GFAP (glial scar) decreased in treated groups when determined by histochemistry, while morphometric analysis showed that tissue was better preserved when PPy/I and PPy/I + SW/EE were administered. The application of PPy/I + SW/EE, promotes the preservation of nervous tissue, and the expression of molecules related to plasticity as βIII-tubulin, reduces the glial scar, improves general health and allows the recovery of motor function after TSCI. The implant of the biomaterial polypyrrole/iodine (PPy/I) synthesized by plasma (an unconventional synthesis method), in combination with a mixed rehabilitation scheme with swimming and enriched environment applied after a traumatic spinal cord injury, promotes expression of GAP-43 and βIII-tubulin (molecules related to plasticity and nerve regeneration) and reduces the expression of GFAP (molecule related to the formation of the glial scar). Both effects together allow the formation of nerve fibers, the reconnection of the spinal cord in the area of injury and the recovery of lost motor function. The figure shows the colocalization (yellow) of βIII-tubilin (red) and GAP-43 (green) in fibers crossing the epicenter of the injury (arrowheads) that reconnect the rostral and caudal ends of the injured spinal cord and allowed recovery of motor function.

Immunization with neural derived peptides (INDP), as well as scar removal (SR) and the use of matrices with bone marrow-mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), have been studied separately and proven to induce a functional and morphological improvement after spinal cord injury (SCI). Herein, we evaluated the therapeutic effects of INDP combined with SR and a fibrin glue matrix (FGM) with MSCs (FGM-MSCs), on motor recovery, axonal regeneration-associated molecules and cytokine expression, axonal regeneration (catecholaminergic and serotonergic fibers), and the induction of neurogenesis after a chronic SCI. For this purpose, female adult Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to SCI, 60 days after lesion, rats were randomly distributed in four groups: (1) Rats immunized with complete Freund's adjuvant + PBS (vehicle; PBS-I); (2) Rats with SR+ FGM-MSCs; (3) Rats with SR+ INDP + FGM-MSCs; (4) Rats only with INDP. Afterwards, we evaluated motor recovery using the BBB locomotor test. Sixty days after the therapy, protein expression of TNFα, IL-4, IL-10, BDNF, and GAP-43 were evaluated using ELISA assay. The number of catecholaminergic and serotonergic fibers were also determined. Neurogenesis was evaluated through immunofluorescence. The results show that treatment with INDP alone significantly increased motor recovery, anti-inflammatory cytokines, regeneration-associated molecules, axonal regeneration, and neurogenesis when compared to the rest of the groups. Our findings suggest that the combination therapy (SR + INDP + FGM-MSCs) modifies the non-permissive microenvironment post SCI, but it is not capable of inducing an appropriate axonal regeneration or neurogenesis when compared to the treatment with INDP alone., (Copyright © 2020 Rodríguez-Barrera, Flores-Romero, Buzoianu-Anguiano, Garcia, Soria-Zavala, Incontri-Abraham, Garibay-López, Juárez-Vignon Whaley and Ibarra.)

The regenerative capability of the central nervous system is limited after traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) due to intrinsic and extrinsic factors that inhibit spinal cord regeneration, resulting in deficient functional recovery. It has been shown that strategies, such as pre-degenerated peripheral nerve (PPN) grafts or the use of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) or exogenous molecules, such as chondroitinase ABC (ChABC) promote axonal growth and remyelination, resulting in an improvement in locomotor function. These treatments have been primarily assessed in acute injury models. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the ability of several single and combined treatments in order to modify the course of chronic complete SCI in rats. A complete cord transection was performed at the T9 level. One month later, animals were divided into five groups: original injury only (control group), and original injury plus spinal cord re-transection to create a gap to accommodate BMSCs, PPN, PPN + BMSCs, and PPN + BMSCs + ChABC. In comparison with control and single-treatment groups (PPN and BMSCs), combined treatment groups (PPN + BMSCs and PPN + BMSCs + ChABC) showed significative axonal regrowth, as revealed by an increase in GAP-43 and MAP-1B expression in axonal fibers, which correlated with an improvement in locomotor function. In conclusion, the combined therapies tested here improve locomotor function by enhancing axonal regeneration in rats with chronic SCI. Further studies are warranted to refine this promising line of research for clinical purposes., (Copyright © 2020 Buzoianu-Anguiano, Rivera-Osorio, Orozco-Suárez, Vega-García, García-Vences, Sánchez-Torres, Jiménez-Estrada, Guizar-Sahagún, Mondragon-Caso, Fernández-Valverde, Madrazo and Grijalva.)

Background and Aims: Calreticulin is a chaperone and master regulator of intracellular calcium homeostasis. Several additional functions have been discovered. Human and parasite calreticulin have been shown to suppress mammary tumor growth in vivo. Here, we explored the capacity of recombinant Taenia solium calreticulin (rTsCRT) to modulate cancer cell growth in vitro., Methods: We used different concentrations of rTsCRT to treat cancer cell lines and analyzed viability and colony formation capacity. We also tested the combination of the IC 20 or IC 50 doses of rTsCRT and of the chemotherapeutic drug 5-fluorouracil on MCF7 and SKOV3 cell lines. As a control, the non-tumorigenic cell line MCF10-A was employed. The effect of the drug combinations was also assessed in cancer stem-like cells. Additionally, scavenger receptor ligands were employed to identify the role of this receptor in the rTsCRT anti-tumoral effect., Results: rTsCRT has a dose-dependent in vitro anti-tumoral effect, being SKOV3 the most sensitive cell line followed by MCF7. When rTsCRT/5-fluorouracil were used, MCF7 and SKOV3 showed a 60% reduction in cell viability; colony formation capacity was also diminished. Treatment of cancer stem-like cells from MCF7 showed a higher reduction in cell viability, while those from SKOV3 were more sensitive to colony disaggregation. Finally, pharmacological inhibition of the scavenger receptor, abrogated the reduction in viability induced by rTsCRT in both the parental and stem-like cells., Conclusion: Our data suggest that rTsCRT alone or in combination with 5-fluorouracil inhibits the growth of breast and ovarian cancer cell lines through its interaction with scavenger receptors., (Copyright © 2020. Published by Elsevier Inc.)

Status epilepticus (SE) is one of the most significant complications in pediatric neurology. Clinical studies have shown positive effects of electroacupuncture (EA) as a therapeutic alternative in the control of partial seizures and secondary generalized clonic seizures. EA promotes the release of neurotransmitters such as GABA and some opioids. The present study aimed to evaluate the anticonvulsive and neuromodulatory effects of Shui Gou DM26 (SG_DM26) acupuncture point electrostimulation on the expression of the glutamate decarboxylase 67 (GAD67) enzyme and the glutamate transporter EAAC1 in an early SE model. At ten postnatal days (10-PD), male rats weighing 22-26 g were divided into 16 groups, including control and treatment groups: Simple stimulation, electrostimulation, anticonvulsant drug treatment, and combined treatment-electrostimulation and pentobarbital (PB). SE was induced with kainic acid (KA), and the following parameters were measured: Motor behavior, and expression of GAD67 and EAAC1. The results suggest an antiepileptic effect derived from SG DM26 point EA. The possible mechanism is most likely the increased production of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA, which is observed as an increase in the expression of both GAD67 and EAAC1, as well as the potential synergy between the neuromodulator effects of EA and PB.

Spinal cord injury is a very common pathological event that has devastating functional consequences in patients. In recent years, several research groups are trying to find an effective therapy that could be applied in clinical practice. In this study, we analyzed the combination of different strategies as a potential therapy for spinal cord injury. Immunization with neural derived peptides (INDP), inhibition of glial scar formation (dipyridyl: DPY), as well as the use of biocompatible matrix (fibrin glue: FG) impregnated with bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were combined and then its beneficial effects were evaluated in the induction of neuroprotection and neuroregeneration after acute SCI. Sprague-Dawley female rats were subjected to a moderate spinal cord injury and then randomly allocated into five groups: 1) phosphate buffered saline; 2) DPY; 3) INDP + DPY; 4) DPY+ FG; 5) INDP + DPY + FG + MSCs. In all rats, intervention was performed 72 hours after spinal cord injury. Locomotor and sensibility recovery was assessed in all rats. At 60 days after treatment, histological examinations of the spinal cord (hematoxylin-eosin and Bielschowsky staining) were performed. Our results showed that the combination therapy (DPY+ INDP + FG + MSCs) was the best strategy to promote motor and sensibility recovery. In addition, significant increases in tissue preservation and axonal density were observed in the combination therapy group. Findings from this study suggest that the combination theapy (DPY+ INDP + FG + MSCs) exhibits potential effects on the protection and regeneration of neural tissue after acute spinal cord injury. All procedures were approved by the Animal Bioethics and Welfare Committee (approval No. 178544; CSNBTBIBAJ 090812960) on August 15, 2016., Competing Interests: None

Background: The chronic phase of Spinal Cord (SC) injury is characterized by the presence of a hostile microenvironment that causes low activity and a progressive decline in neurological function; this phase is non-compatible with regeneration. Several treatment strategies have been investigated in chronic SC injury with no satisfactory results. OBJECTIVE- In this proof-of-concept study, we designed a combination therapy (Comb Tx) consisting of surgical glial scar removal plus scar inhibition, accompanied with implantation of mesenchymal stem cells (MSC), and immunization with neural-derived peptides (INDP)., Methods: This study was divided into three subsets, all in which Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to a complete SC transection. Sixty days after injury, animals were randomly allocated into two groups for therapeutic intervention: control group and animals receiving the Comb-Tx. Sixty-three days after treatment we carried out experiments analyzing motor recovery, presence of somatosensory evoked potentials, neural regeneration-related genes, and histological evaluation of serotoninergic fibers., Results: Comb-Tx induced a significant locomotor and electrophysiological recovery. An increase in the expression of regeneration-associated genes and the percentage of 5-HT+ fibers was noted at the caudal stump of the SC of animals receiving the Comb-Tx. There was a significant correlation of locomotor recovery with positive electrophysiological activity, expression of GAP43, and percentage of 5-HT+ fibers., Conclusion: Comb-Tx promotes motor and electrophysiological recovery in the chronic phase of SC injury subsequent to a complete transection. Likewise, it is capable of inducing the permissive microenvironment to promote axonal regeneration., (Copyright© Bentham Science Publishers; For any queries, please email at epub@benthamscience.net.)

Background: Immunization with neural derived peptides (INDP) as well as scar removal-separately-have shown to induce morphological and functional improvement after spinal cord injury (SCI). In the present study, we compared the effect of INDP alone versus INDP with scar removal on motor recovery, regeneration-associated and cytokine gene expression, and axonal regeneration after chronic SCI. Scar removal was conducted through a single incision with a double-bladed scalpel along the stump, and scar renewal was halted by adding α,α'-dipyridyl., Results: During the chronic injury stage, two experiments were undertaken. The first experiment was aimed at testing the therapeutic effect of INDP combined with scar removal. Sixty days after therapeutic intervention, the expression of genes encoding for TNFα, IFNγ, IL4, TGFβ, BDNF, IGF1, and GAP43 was evaluated at the site of injury. Tyrosine hydroxylase and 5-hydroxytryptamine positive fibers were also studied. Locomotor evaluations showed a significant recovery in the group treated with scar removal + INDP. Moreover; this group presented a significant increase in IL4, TGFβ, BDNF, IGF1, and GAP43 expression, but a decrease of TNFα and IFNγ. Also, the spinal cord of animals receiving both treatments presented a significant increase of serotonergic and catecholaminergic fibers as compared to other the groups. The second experiment compared the results of the combined approach versus INDP alone. Rats receiving INDP likewise showed improved motor recovery, although on a lesser scale than those who received the combined treatment. An increase in inflammation and regeneration-associated gene expression, as well as in the percentage of serotonergic and catecholaminergic fibers was observed in INDP-treated rats to a lesser degree than those in the combined therapy group., Conclusions: These findings suggest that INDP, both alone and in combination with scar removal, could modify the non-permissive microenvironment prevailing at the chronic phase of SCI, providing the opportunity of improving motor recovery.

Functional recovery following spinal cord injury (SCI) is limited by poor axonal and cellular regeneration as well as the failure to replace damaged myelin. Employed separately, both the transplantation of the predegenerated peripheral nerve (PPN) and the transplantation of bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) have been shown to promote the regrowth and remyelination of the damaged central axons in SCI models of hemisection, transection, and contusion injury. With the aim to test the effects of the combined transplantation of PPN and BMSC on regrowth, remyelination, and locomotor function in an adult rat model of spinal cord (SC) transection, 39 Fischer 344 rats underwent SC transection at T9 level. Four weeks later they were randomly assigned to traumatic spinal cord injury (TSCI) without treatment, TSCI + Fibrin Glue (FG), TSCI + FG + PPN, and TSCI + FG + PPN + BMSCs. Eight weeks after, transplantation was carried out on immunofluorescence and electron microscope studies. The results showed greater axonal regrowth and remyelination in experimental groups TSCI + FG + PPN and TSCI + FG + PPN + BMSCs analyzed with GAP-43, neuritin, and myelin basic protein. It is concluded that the combined treatment of PPN and BMSCs is a favorable strategy for axonal regrowth and remyelination in a chronic SC transection model.