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Highlights • Children with COVID 19 disease are less symptomatic but they can be potential agents of transmission. • Most children with symptoms from COVID 19 disease (cough, fever, respiratory difficulties) show bnormalities in CXR. • Findings in CXR are non-specific and superimpose on other viral pneumonias. • Peripheral distribution of lung abnormalities is not a distinctive feature in paediatric population. • CXR have a role in the management of the disease in children., BACKGROUND The outbreak of COVID-19 has become pandemic. Pediatric population has been less studied than adult population and prompt diagnosis is challenging due to asymptomatic or mild episodes. Radiology is an important complement to clinical and epidemiological features. OBJECTIVE To establish the most common CXR patterns in children with COVID-19, evaluate interobserver correlation and to discuss the role of imaging techniques in the management of children. MATERIALS AND METHODS Forty-four patients between 0 and 16 years of age with confirmed SARS-Cov-2 infection and CXR were selected. Two paediatric radiologists independently evaluated the images and assessed the type of abnormality, distribution and evolution when available. RESULTS Median age was 79.8 months (ranging from 2 weeks to 16 years of age). Fever was the most common symptom (43.5 %). 90 % of CXR showed abnormalities. Peribronchial cuffing was the most common finding (86.3 %) followed by GGOs (50 %). In both cases central distribution was more common than peripheral. Consolidations accounted for 18.1 %. Normal CXR, pleural effusion, and altered cardiomediastinal contour were the least common. CONCLUSION The vast majority of CXR showed abnormalities in children with COVID-19. However, findings are nonspecific. Interobserver correlation was good in describing consolidations, normal x-rays and GGOs. Imaging techniques have a role in the management of children with known or suspected COVID-19, especially in those with moderate or severe symptoms or with underlying risk factors.

Resumen: Introducción: Actualmente existen diversas guías nacionales sobre el uso empírico adecuado de antibióticos en niños. Desconocemos si los pediatras españoles emplean dichas guías al seleccionar antimicrobianos. Material y métodos: Estudio transversal de ámbito nacional, mediante encuesta on-line sobre la selección empírica de antibióticos en niños, enviada por correo electrónico a pediatras socios de la Asociación Española de Pediatría o de sus sociedades de especialidades y regionales, entre abril y junio del 2012. Para considerar la adecuación de las respuestas se tuvieron en cuenta las guías, los documentos de consenso y los protocolos recientes. Resultados: Se recibieron 1.214 respuestas. Los tratamientos seleccionados se ajustan en un 85% a las recomendaciones. Los resultados menos adecuados se obtienen en enfermedades infecciosas en las que no existe un documento de consenso nacional en el momento de realizar la encuesta (73% de adecuación en este caso). Conclusiones: La elección empírica de antibióticos por parte de los pediatras españoles es bastante adecuada a las guías recientes. Sin embargo, la interpretación de los datos debe ser crítica, ya que existen aspectos del manejo racional de antibióticos en niños que podrían mejorar en nuestro país. Se plantea como necesidad continuar con la realización e implementación de documentos de consenso nacionales para el manejo de enfermedades infecciosas pediátricas. Proponemos que este tipo de encuestas se realicen periódicamente, así como análisis similares en otras áreas de capacitación específicas, incluyendo estudios de prescripción real, para promover el uso racional de todos los fármacos pediátricos en nuestro país. Abstract: Introduction: There are currently several national guidelines on the appropriate empirical use of antibiotics in Spanish children. But, do the Spanish paediatricians use these guidelines when prescribing antimicrobials? Material and methods: A national study from was conducted from April to June 2012 using an on-line questionnaire on the empirical selection of antibiotics in children. An e-mail was sent to paediatrician members of the Spanish Association of Paediatrics (AEP) or its Regional or Paediatric Specialties Societies. Current guidelines and consensus documents were used to determine the appropriateness of the responses. Results: A total of 1214 responses were received. Eighty five per cent of the treatments selected by Spanish paediatricians were adjusted to guidelines. The least appropriate responses were obtained in those infectious diseases with no national consensus document at the time of the survey (73% in this case). Conclusions: Spanish paediatricians mainly select empirical antibiotics in accordance with current guidelines. However, there are features that could be improved in our country. The preparing and implementation of national consensus documents on the management of paediatric infectious diseases should be continued. We propose to regularly perform these kinds of surveys, including real prescription studies, and to also extend it to other paediatric specialities, in order to promote appropriateness of use of all the paediatric drugs in our country.

Resumen: Antecedentes: El virus respiratorio sincitial (VRS) y otros virus son causas conocidas de hospitalización en lactantes. Menos conocido es el patrón de virus en infecciones extrahospitalarias en menores de 6 meses. Objetivo: El objetivo de este estudio es describir las características clínicas y los factores epidemiológicos asociados con las infecciones respiratorias virales de ámbito extrahospitalario en menores de 6 meses. Pacientes y métodos: Estudio prospectivo en cohorte de niños de las áreas 8 y 9 de Madrid controlados desde el nacimiento mediante llamadas telefónicas quincenales durante una temporada invernal. Se registraron datos clínicos y epidemiológicos en cuestionarios prediseñados. Se exploró y recogió el aspirado nasofaríngeo (ANF) cuando el paciente presentó sintomatología compatible con una infección respiratoria. El diagnóstico de los virus más comunes se realizó con inmunofluorescencia directa (IFD) y amplificación genómica (PCR). Resultados: Fueron seleccionados 316 recién nacidos. Se realizaron 1.865 llamadas telefónicas (mediana 4), y 106 visitas, en 89 de las cuales se confirmó la enfermedad. Los síntomas más frecuentes fueron rinitis (91 %) y tos (69 %). El diagnóstico clínico principal fue infección respiratoria de vías altas (82 %); 17 de 72 ANF realizados (23,2 %) fueron positivos. Se detectaron rinovirus (41,1 %) y VRS (35,2 %). Ingresaron un 16 % (17/106) de los niños atendidos por enfermedad (el 5,3% de la cohorte), diagnosticados de síndrome febril y de bronquiolitis. No encontramos ningún factor epidemiológico asociado con la infección respiratoria viral en los casos positivos. Conclusiones: En nuestro medio las infecciones respiratorias de los lactantes son en su mayoría banales y no precisan atención hospitalaria. El rinovirus y el VRS son los principales agentes etiológicos. No se encontraron factores epidemiológicos relacionados con la infección respiratoria asociada a virus. Abstract: Background: Respiratory syncytial virus and Influenza virus infections are known causes of hospital admission in infants. It is less well known the pattern of virus infections in infants under 6 months of age in the outpatient setting. Objective: To describe the clinical and epidemiological pattern of community-acquired viral respiratory infections in infants under 6 months. Patients and methods: A cohort of infants from the 8 and 9 Madrid Health Districts was followed by telephone calls every two weeks since birth during the epidemic winter season. Clinical and epidemiological data were collected in pre-designed questionnaires. Nasopharyngeal aspirate was obtained in every patient with symptoms compatible with respiratory infection. Diagnosis of the more common virus was made with direct immunofluorescence and nucleic acid amplification test (PCR). Results: Were recruited 316 newborns. The 1,865 phone calls made (median 4 for every child), produced 106 visits, and the illness confirmed in 89 illness. Rhinitis (91 %) and cough (69 %) were the most common symptoms. Upper respiratory infection was the principal clinical diagnosis (84.5 %), and 17 of the 72 samples (23.2 %) were positive. Most common viruses were RSV (41.1 %) and rhinovirus (35.2 %). Of the children visited, 17 out of 106 (16 %) (5.3% of the cohort) were admitted to hospital. Diagnoses were febrile syndrome and bronchiolitis. We did not find any epidemiological factor associated with viral respiratory infection in positive cases. Conclusions: In our population most of the respiratory infections in infants are minor and do not need hospital assistance. Rhinovirus and RSV are the major pathogens. We did not find any epidemiological factor associated with viral respiratory infection.

Objetivo: El objetivo de este trabajo ha sido establecer los valores de referencia de los índices Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) y Quantitative Insulin Sensitivity Check Index (QUICKI), insulina y péptido C en ayunas en niños sanos, y con ello obtener percentiles de referencia a partir de los cuales establecer un punto de corte para valorar el riesgo cardiovascular en nuestra población infantil. Material y métodos: En este estudio participan 372 niños de ambos sexos y diferente estadio puberal con un índice de masa corporal (IMC) normal. Se determinan los valores de glucemia, insulina y péptido C (mediante quimioluminiscencia), y se calculan los índice HOMA y QUICKI. Resultados: Todos los niños presentan niveles de glucemia normales (media [DE]): 87 (7,75) mg/dl. Los valores medios obtenidos para cada variable son: insulina 7,74 (5,35) μU/ml, péptido C: 1,76 (0,79) ng/ml, índice HOMA: 1,72 (1,27), e índice QUICKI 0,72 (0,29). De forma global se objetiva un aumento progresivo de los valores de glucosa, insulina, péptido C y el índice HOMA en relación con la edad, existiendo diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre estadios prepuberales y puberales para ambos sexos, siguiendo el índice QUICKI un patrón inverso. Así mismo existen diferencias significativas entre sexos para todas las variables e índices estudiados. Los valores obtenidos para el percentil P90 para cada variable e índice de forma global son: insulina 15,05 μU/ml, péptido C: 2,85 ng/ml, índice HOMA 3,43 e índice QUICKI: 1,10. Conclusiones: Los valores de glucemia, insulina, péptido C y el índice HOMA aumentan con la edad y el estadio puberal de forma significativa. El índice QUICKI por el contrario disminuye. Establecemos el percentil P90 de estas variables que nos servirá como punto de referencia para valorar el riesgo cardiovascular en nuestra población. : Objective: The aim of this study was to establish the reference values of the Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) and Quantitative Insulin Sensitivity Check (QUICKI) indexes, as well as those of insulin and C-peptide levels in healthy children and adolescents with a view to determining reference percentiles to detect those at cardiovascular risk. Material and methods: A total of 372 children boys and girls of different ages and at distinct pubertal stages with normal body mass index participated in the study. Fasting glucose, insulin and C-peptide values were measured by chemiluminescence and the HOMA and QUICKI indexes were calculated. Results: Fasting glucose levels were normal in all children. The mean values obtained for each variable were (mean (SD)): fasting glucose 87(7.75) mg/dL, insulin 7.74 (5.35) mcU/mL, C-peptide: 1.76 (0.79) ng/mL, HOMA index 1.72 (1.27) and QUICKI index 0.72 (0.29). All the variables progressively increased with age, with statistically significant differences between prepubertal and pubertal children. The QUICKI index showed an inverse relationship. In addition, significant differences were found between sexes. The 90th percentile for all the variables was as follows: insulin 15.05 mcU/mL, C-peptide: 2.85 ng/mL, HOMA index 3.43 and QUICKI index 1.10. Conclusions: Values of fasting glucose, insulin, C-peptide and the HOMA index significantly increased with age and pubertal stage, while the QUICKI index decreased. We defined the 90th percentile for all the parameters studied as the cut-off point to identify children at cardiovascular risk in our population.

[ES] Antecedentes: El rinovirus se considera un agente causal de cuadros catarrales banales, sin embargo se ha descrito como un agente inductor de exacerbaciones asmáticas en adultos y niños mayores. En nuestro medio no se ha descrito el papel del rinovirus en infecciones respiratorias de niños hospitalizados. Objetivos: Describir las infecciones confirmadas por rinovirus en niños hospitalizados por infección respiratoria en un hospital de segundo nivel. Pacientes y métodos: Estudio descriptivo prospectivo de las infecciones confirmadas por rinovirus en niños hospitalizados por fiebre o infección respiratoria en la temporada 2004-2005. Para el diagnóstico virológico se realizó inmunofluorescencia y reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) en aspirado nasofaríngeo. Se describen las características clínicas de los pacientes. Resultados: Se describen un total de 76 niños hospitalizados con infección por rinovirus, lo que supuso el 25 % de los pacientes hospitalizados por procesos respiratorios o fiebre. El rinovirus fue el segundo agente viral identificado tras el virus respiratorio sincitial (29,9% de los hospitalizados). El 71,1 % de los pacientes fueron menores de 2 años. Los diagnósticos más frecuentes fueron sibilancias recurrentes en el 60,5 %, bronquiolitis en 23,7 %, neumonía en el 7,9 % e infección respiratoria de vías altas en el 5,3%. Presentaron fiebre de más de 38 °C el 57,9 % de los niños e infiltrado radiológico el 23,7%. Presentaron hipoxia el 43,4% de los niños. En niños mayores de 2 años el diagnóstico fue crisis asmática en 21 de los 22 casos. Conclusiones: Los rinovirus se detectaron en un importante porcentaje de los niños hospitalizados a consecuencia de infección respiratoria, siendo precedidos en frecuencia sólo por el virus respiratorio sincitial. En nuestra serie es el agente viral más frecuentemente asociado con episodios de sibilancias recurrentes en niños mayores de 2 años, y el segundo en los más pequeños. [EN] Background: Rhinovirus is a recognized cause of common cold and has been shown to cause asthma exacerbations in adults and children. The burden of rhinovirus infections in hospitalized children has not been described in Spain. Objective: To describe confirmed rhinovirus infections in children hospitalized for respiratory tract infection in a secondary public hospital. Patients and methods: We performed a prospective descriptive study in children admitted to hospital with fever or respiratory tract infection and with a positive isolation of rhinovirus in nasopharyngeal washings between September 2004 and July 2005. Virological diagnosis was made with direct immunofluorescent assay and/or reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction in specimens obtained from nasopharyngeal washings. The clinical characteristics of the patients were analyzed. Results: There were 76 children with rhinovirus infection, representing 25 % of admissions in 304 children with fever or respiratory tract infection. Rhinovirus was the second most frequent viral agent identified after respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) (29.9 % of admissions). Fifty-four children (71.1 %) were under 2 years of age. The most frequent clinical diagnoses were recurrent wheezing in 60.5 %, bronchiolitis in 23.7 %, pneumonia in 7.9 %, and upper respiratory tract infection in 5.3 %. Fever > 38 degrees C was present in 57.9 % of the patients and radiologic infiltrate was found in 23.7 %. Oxygen saturation less than 95 % was found in 43.4 % of the patients. Of 22 children aged more than 2 years, a diagnosis of asthmatic crisis was made in 21. Conclusions: Rhinoviruses were frequently identified in hospitalized children with respiratory tract disease and were the second most common viruses after RSV. In our series, it was the most frequent cause of recurrent wheezing in hospitalized children and the second most common cause in infants. Estudio parcialmente financiado por el Fondo de Investigaciones Sanitarias.FIS N.º 98/0310. Sí

Introducción: La espondilodiscitis es una entidad relativamente infrecuente en la infancia, que cursa con una sintomatología típica, aunque poco específica. El objetivo de este trabajo es describir las características clínicas y evolutivas de los pacientes con este diagnóstico en los hospitales de la Comunidad de Madrid. Pacientes y métodos: Se revisaron los casos de espondilodiscitis diagnosticados en los últimos 5 años en los hospitales La Paz, Niño Jesús, Gregorio Marañón, Severo Ochoa, Doce de Octubre y Getafe. Se recogieron las características clínicas, las pruebas diagnósticas, el tratamiento y la evolución. Resultados: Se estudiaron 20 niños con una edad media de 37 meses. El nivel lesional fue L5-S1 en 6 casos, L-2-L3 en cinco, L3-L4 en 4 casos, C5-C6 y C6-C7 en dos y D12-L1 en uno. El tiempo hasta el diagnóstico fue de 20 ± 16 días. La sintomatología más frecuente fue la alteración de la marcha, cojera o rechazo de la sedestación. Presentaron fiebre no muy elevada (< 38,5 °C) 11 pacientes. Otros síntomas más inespecíficos fueron irritabilidad, estreñimiento y dolor abdominal. Todos los pacientes presentaron leucocitosis moderada sin neutrofilia. La velocidad de sedimentación globular estuvo elevada (60 ± 26).Las técnicas diagnósticas más empleadas fueron la radiografía convencional, la gammagrafía y la resonancia magnética. Todos recibieron antibióticos, tres de ellos orales y el resto oral e intravenosos. Los antibióticos más empleados fueron cefuroxima, cloxacilina y amoxicilina-ácido clavulánico. La duración del tratamiento osciló entre 3 y 8 semanas. Todos los pacientes evolucionaron de manera favorable, aunque en 8 casos se encontraron secuelas radiológicas. Conclusiones: La espondilodiscitis no es una entidad excepcional en niños y creemos que precisa mayor atención por parte de los pediatras. : Introduction: Spondylodiscitis is a relatively uncommon entity in infancy and childhood, with typical, although non-specific symptoms. The aim of this study was to describe the clinical features at presentation and follow-up in patients diagnosed with spondylodiscitis in hospitals in the Autonomous Community of Madrid. Patients and methods: All cases of spondylodiscitis diagnosed in children in the hospitals of La Paz, Niño Jesús, Gregorio Marañón, Severo Ochoa, Doce de Octubre and Getafe in Madrid were reviewed. Their clinical features, diagnostic tests, treatment and follow-up were analyzed. Results: Twenty children with a mean age of 37 months were studied. The level of disc involvement was L5-S1 in six patients, L2-L3 in five, L3-L4 in four, C6-C7 in two, and D12-L1 in one. The mean time before diagnosis was 20 ± 16 days. The most frequent symptoms were gait disturbances, limping, or inability to remain seated. Eleven patients had low grade fever (< 38,5 °C). Other less specific symptoms were irritability, constipation and abdominal pain. All patients presented moderate leukocytosis without neutrophilia. The mean erythrocyte sedimentation rate was 60 ± 26.The most frequently used diagnostic tests were conventional spine radiographs, technetium-99m bone scan and magnetic resonance imaging. All patients received antibiotics; three received oral antibiotics only and the remaining patients received intravenous and oral antibiotics. The most frequently prescribed antibiotics were cefuroxime, cloxacillin and amoxicillin-clavulanate. The duration of treatment ranged between 3 and 8 weeks. All patients had a favorable outcome, although in eight, radiological sequelae were observed. Conclusions: Spondylodiscitis is not exceptional in childhood and awareness of this entity among pediatricians should be increased.

Antecedentes: La gastroenteritis nosocomial es un problema frecuente en las unidades de hospitalización pediátricas, donde el 20–50% de los episodios por rotavirus y astrovirus son de origen nosocomial Objetivo: Describir en nuestro medio la incidencia de gastroenteritis nosocomial por rotavirus y astrovirus y de eliminación fecal asintomática de estos virus e identificar los serotipos G de los rotavirus detectados Métodos: Estudio prospectivo de los niños ingresados durante un año en la unidad de lactantes con seguimiento de la aparición de síntomas de gastroenteritis y estudio periódico de heces para detección de antígeno de rotavirus y de astrovirus por enzimoinmunoanálisis (EIA). En los pacientes con gastroenteritis se realizó también coprocultivo, estudio de adenovirus por EIA y de calicivirus por reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) y análisis de los serotipos G de los rotavirus por EIA con anticuerpos monoclonales Resultados: De los 666 niños ingresados sin diarrea, 60 presentaron gastroenteritis nosocomial (9/100 pacientes ingresados y 1,75 por 100 días de estancia hospitalaria): rotavirus en 34 casos (5/100 pacientes) y astrovirus en 2 (0,3/100 pacientes). En 27 pacientes de los 329 estudiados sin diarrea se detectó eliminación viral: rotavirus en 23 pacientes y astrovirus en cuatro; en 13 (4 %) en el ingreso y en 14 (4,2%) pasadas 72 h (infección nosocomial asintomática). No hubo diferencia en los serotipos G detectados entre los casos de gastroenteritis nosocomial y los de origen comunitario Conclusiones: Se confirma la importancia de la etiología viral en la gastroenteritis nosocomial y se valora la eliminación fecal asintomática de rotavirus como uno de los factores de transmisión de esta infección : Background: Nosocomial gastroenteritis is frequent in pediatric hospital wards. Between 20 % and 50 % of gastroenteritis cases caused by rotavirus and astrovirus are of nosocomial origin Objective: To determine the incidence of nosocomial rotavirus and astrovirus gastroenteritis in our environment, the incidence of asymptomatic infection with these viruses, and to identify the G serotypes of the rotaviruses detected Methods: We performed a prospective study of all children under 2 years of age admitted to a neonatology unit over a 1-year period who were followed-up for the presence of diarrhea and periodic study of feces to detect the presence of rotavirus and astrovirus antigens by enzimoimmunoassay (EIA). Patients with gastroenteritis also underwent bacteria stool culture, adenovirus detection by EIA, calcivirus detection by polymerase chain reaction, and analysis of rotavirus G serotypes by EIA with monoclonal antibodies Results: Of 666 children admitted without diarrhea, 60 presented nosocomial gastroenteritis (9 % of patients admitted and 1.75 per 100 days of hospital stay): 34 presented rotavirus (5 % of patients) and two presented astrovirus (0.3 % of patients). Of the 329 patients without diarrhea who were studied, viral elimination was detected in 27: rotavirus in 23 patients and astrovirus in four. Viral infection was detected on admission in 13 patients (4 %) and after 72 hours in 14 patients (4.2 %) (asymptomatic nosocomial infection). No differences in the distribution of rotavirus G serotypes were observed between community-acquired and nosocomial gastroenteritis Conclusions: These data confirm the importance of viral etiology in nosocomial gastroenteritis and allow us to evaluate asymptomatic fecal elimination of rotavirus as one of the factors in the transmission of this infection

Antecedentes: La realización sistemática de una radiografía de tórax en las bronquiolitis aumenta el gasto sanitario y supone una exposición, con frecuencia innecesaria, a radiaciones ionizantes. Objetivos: Los objetivos de este estudio han sido conocer la frecuencia de infiltrado/atelectasia en lactantes menores de 24 meses atendidos en un servicio de urgencias; comprobar si la presencia de infiltrado/atelectasia modifica la actitud terapéutica y estudiar qué variables clínicas pueden identificar a los niños con radiografía normal, con objeto de reducir exploraciones radiológicas innecesarias. Pacientes y métodos: Estudio prospectivo, desde octubre de 2003 hasta abril de 2004 en lactantes menores de 24 meses atendidos en el Servicio de Urgencias del Hospital Severo Ochoa (Madrid) con el diagnóstico de bronquiolitis. Variables registradas: edad, sexo, días de evolución, frecuencia respiratoria, temperatura, asimetría en la auscultación, saturación de oxígeno en sangre arterial (SaO2) y virus identificado. Se realizó radiografía de tórax y se evaluó la necesidad de ingreso antes y después de conocer el resultado radiológico. Resultados: Se incluyeron 252 ninos, de los que el 50 % eran menores de 5 meses. El 14,3% (intervalo de confianza del 95 %, 10,1-18,5) presento infiltrado/atelectasia (índice K = 0,64). La fiebre igual o superior a 38 °C (p = 0,004), la SaO2 < 94% (p = 0,006) y la probabilidad de ingreso antes de conocer el resultado radiologico (p = 0,011) suponen un riesgo 2,5 veces mayor de infiltrado/atelectasia en la radiografía de tórax. No hubo diferencias entre los niños con y sin infiltrado en edad, sexo, días de evolución, frecuencia respiratoria o virus identificado. La actitud terapéutica se modificó en el 30 % de los niños con infiltrado. La probabilidad de radiografía normal es del 92 % ante temperatura inferior a 38 °C y SaO2 ≥ 94%. Conclusiones: La radiografía de tórax en la mayoría de los niños con bronquiolitis no muestra alteraciones significativas. La fiebre igual o superior a 38 °C y la SaO2 < 94 % se asocian significativamente con infiltrado/atelectasia. En su ausencia, la mayoría de los niños tendrán una radiografía sin alteraciones. : Background: The routine use of chest radiograph in infants with bronchiolitis increases health costs and can often unnecessarily expose the patient to radiation. Objectives: To evaluate the prevalence of infiltrate/atelectasis in infants younger than 2 years who presented to the emergency department with bronchiolitis, to assess whether patient management is changed after viewing the chest radiograph and to determine which clinical variables can accurately identify children with normal radiographs, with a view to reducing unnecessary radiological investigations. Patients and methods: From October 2003 to December 2004, infants aged < 24 months evaluated in the emergency department of the Severo Ochoa Hospital (Madrid) with a diagnosis of bronchiolitis were included in this study. The variables registered were age, sex, time since onset, respiratory rate, temperature, asymmetry on auscultation, oxygen saturation and the virus identified. A chest radiograph was obtained and the need for admission was evaluated before and after obtaining the results. Results: Two hundred fifty-two infants were included, of which 50 % were aged less than 5 months. Infiltrate/atelectasis was identified in 14.3 % (95% CI: 10.1-18.5; kappa coefficient: 0.64). Patients with infiltrate/atelectasis were 2.5 times more likely to have a temperature of ≥ 38 °C (p: 0.004), O2 saturation of < 94% (p: 0,006) and to be admitted before the results of chest radiograph were known. No differences were found between children with and without infiltrate in age at presentation, sex, disease duration, respiratory rate or identified virus. Patient management was modified in 30 % of patients with infiltrate/ atelectasis. Patients with a temperature of < 38° and O2 saturation of > 94% had a 92 % probability of normal chest radiograph. Conclusions: Most infants presenting with bronchiolitis had a normal chest radiograph. Temperature ≥ 38° and O2 saturation < 94% were significantly associated with infiltrate/atelectasis. In most infants with bronchiolitis, the absence of fever and hypoxia are good predictors of normal chest radiographs.

Objetivo: El objetivo del presente trabajo ha sido establecer los valores de referencia de las hormonas tiroideas (tirotropina [TSH], triyodotironina [T3] libre y tiroxina [T4] libre) mediante quimioluminiscencia en niños y adolescentes de la Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid. Método: 371 niños y adolescentes de ambos sexos, diferentes edades y estadios puberales, participaron en este estudio. Los valores de TSH y T3 y T4 libres en suero se determinaron mediante quimioluminiscencia. Resultados: Los valores de TSH y T4 y T3 libres descienden de forma inversamente proporcional a la edad cronológica con di->ferencias significativas entre los grupos prepuberales y puberales. Existen, además, diferencias puntuales entre sexos en algunos grupos. Conclusiones: Los valores de las hormonas tiroideas disminuyen con la edad cronológica. A la vista de las diferencias en los valores de estas hormonas entre sujetos prepuberales y puberales consideramos necesario incluir los diferentes estadios puberales en la estandarización de estas hormonas. : Objective: To establish the reference ranges of thyrotropin (TSH), free triiodothyronine (FT3) and free thyroxine (FT4) with the chemiluminescence method in healthy children and adolescents in Madrid, Spain. Method: A total of 371 children and adolescents of both sexes, with different ages and at different pubertal stage participated in the study. Serum values of TSH, FT3, and FT4 were determined by chemiluminescence. Results: TSH, FT4 and FT3 reference ranges decreased inversely with chronological age. Significant differences were found between prepubertal and pubertal groups. In some groups, there were also occasional differences between sexes. Conclusions: Thyroid hormone levels decrease with chronological age. Because of the differences in hormone levels between prepubertal and pubertal subjects, we believe that different pubertal stages should be included in the standard reference values of these hormones.

Antecedentes: La gentamicina en dosis única diaria se considera un tratamiento seguro y eficaz en adultos para las infecciones por gérmenes gramnegativos. Existen escasos datos en la literatura que justifiquen su uso en lactantes. Objetivos: Comparar la eficacia del tratamiento de la pielonefritis aguda en lactantes con gentamicina en única dosis diaria (UDD) frente a la pauta clásica de tres dosis diarias (TDD). Métodos: Estudio cuasi experimental en el que se compara el grupo de intervención tratado con gentamicina en UDD frente a una cohorte histórica de niños tratados con TDD. Se analizan leucocitosis, proteína C reactiva (PCR), creatinina,dosis de gentamicina, niveles pico y valle, tiempo necesario para la desaparición de la fiebre y evolución clínica. Resultados: Se estudian 58 lactantes con edades entre 1 y 20 meses.Veinticinco de ellos recibieron gentamicina TDD y 33 gentamicina UDD. La dosis de gentamicina en el grupo TDD fue algo superior que en el tratado con UDD (6,4 6 1,14 mg/kg/día y 5,06 6 0,22 mg/kg/día, respectivamente; p < 0,001). El nivel pico de gentamicina fue supe-rior en el grupo UDD (9,32 6 1,4 mg/ml) que en el grupo TDD (5,09 6 1,15 mg/ml) con p < 0,0001. Los niveles valle fueron inferiores en el grupo UDD que en TDD (0,23 6 0,26 mg/ml frente a 0,78 6 0,45 mg/ml, respectivamente; p 5 0,001). No se encontraron diferencias en el tiempo necesario para la desaparición de la fiebre;30,64 6 32 h en el grupo TDD y 28,57 6 32 h en el grupo UDD. Los valores de creatinina durante el tratamiento fueron normales en ambos grupos. La evolución fue buena en todos los pacientes y no se observaron efectos secundarios. Conclusiones: El tratamiento con gentamicina en UDD en nuestra población de lactantes con pielonefritis aguda es tan eficaz como el TDD tradicional y, posiblemente, igual o incluso más seguro. : Background: Once-daily dosing (ODD) of gentamicin is advocated as an effective and safe treatment of Gram-negative bacterial infections in adults. There are insufficient data in the liter-ature to justify its use in infants. Objectives: To compare the efficacy of ODD of gentamicin with that of classical thrice-daily (t.i.d.) administration in infants with acute pyelonephritis. Methods: We performed a quasi-experimental study comparing 33 infants who received ODD of gentamicin with a histor-ical control group of 25 infants treated with gentamicin t.i.d. Leukocytosis, C-reactive protein, creatinine, gentamicin dose, peak and trough values, time required for disappearance of fever, and outcome were analyzed. Results: The mean doses of gentamicin (mg/kg/day) were higher in the t.i.d. group (6.4 6 1.14) than in the ODD group (5.06 6 0.22; p< 0.001). Peak serum gentamicin concentrations (µg/ml) were significantly higher in the ODD group (9.32 6 1.4) than in the t.i.d. group (5.09 6 1.15; p < 0.001). Mean trough gentamicin concentrations (µg/ml) were lower in the ODD group than in the t.i.d. group (0.23 6 0.26 vs 0.78 6 0.45; p 5 0.001). There were no significant differences in the duration of fever between the groups (30.64 6 32 hours in the t.i.d. group vs. 28.57 6 32 hours in the ODD group). Serum creatinine levels were normal during treatment in both groups. In all patients outcome was good and no adverse effects were noted. Conclusions: Treatment with ODD of gentamicin in our population of infants with acute pyelonephritis was as effective as tra-ditional administration t.i.d. and possibly was equally safe or safer.

Antecedentes: Las resistencias bacterianas a antibióticos constituyen un problema de gran importancia en la práctica clínica. Un uso abusivo de estos fármacos está implicado en su producción. Se recoge en la bibliografía un creciente interés en realizar una prescripción racional de éstos. Objetivos: Conocer la adecuación de la prescripción antibiótica enuna consulta pediátrica de atención primaria y su evoluciónantes y después de realizar una intervención consistente en un análisis crítico de ésta. Pacientes y métodos: Se estudian los pacientes de 0 a 4 años de edad pertenecientes a dicha consulta, en dos períodos de tiempo, 1997 y 2000. Se recogen el número de visitas, los procesos infecciosos y respiratorios que presentan y los ciclos antibióticos prescritos. Resultados: Se incluyen 456 niños, 2.339 procesos y 829 ciclos antibióticos. Entre ambos períodos: la media de ciclos antibióticos administrados disminuyó de 2,3 a 1,5 ciclos, niño y año (p < 0,001). El número de procesos que reciben tratamiento antibiótico varía del 38,8 al 31,7% (p < 0,001). La adecuación de la decisión de tratar aumenta del 85,1 al 93,3% (p < 0,001) y la adecuación del antibiótico prescrito lo hace del 56,3 al 78,7% (p < 0,001). Los diagnósticos más frecuentes fueron catarro de vías altas (CVA), faringoamigdalitis, otitis y bronquitis. Los antibióticos más prescritos amoxicilina, amoxicilina-ácido clavulánico y penicilina V. Conclusiones: El conocimiento por parte del profesional de su perfilde prescripción de antibióticos, y su posterior análisis crítico comparado con la bibliografía actualizada contribuye a la mejora de éste. : Background: Bacterial resistance to antimicrobial drugs constitutes a considerable problem in clinical practice. Over prescribing of these drugs contributes to bacterial resistance and current literature shows a growing interest in the rationalization of antibiotic use. Objectives: To observe the appropriateness of antibiotic prescriptions to children in an outpatient primary care setting, before and after a critical analysis of prescribing habits was performed. Patients and methods: Children aged 0-4 years attending the outpatient pediatric clinic were surveyed in two different periods: 1997 and 2000. The number of visits, infectious and respiratory diseases observed, and courses of antibiotics prescribed was determined. Results: A total of 456 children, 2,339 diseases, and 829 antibiotic prescriptions were included. Several differences were observed between the two periods: the number of antibiotic courses administered to each child in one year averaged 2.3 in the first period and 1.5 in the second (p < 0.001). The number of processes receiving antibiotic prescription decreased from 38.8% to 31.7 % (p < 0.001). The appropriateness of the decision to treat increased from 85.1 % to 93.3% (p < 0.001), and the appropriateness of the antibiotic prescribed increased from 56.3 % to 78.7% (p < 0.001). The most frequently diagnosed infectious diseases were common cold, tonsillopharyngitis, otitis and bronchitis. The most frequently prescribed antibiotic drugs were amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanate and V penicillin. Conclusions: Physicians' knowledge of their own antibiotics prescription profiles with subsequent critical comparative analysis with current literature on the subject can help to modify prescribing habits.

Objetivo: Describir las características clínicas y epidemiológicas de las infecciones por virus parainfluenza humano tipo 4 (VPIH-4) en pacientes pediátricos. Métodos: Se estudiaron los pacientes hospitalizados o atendidos en el servicio de urgencias con el diagnóstico de infección respiratoria de vías respiratorias inferiores. Las variables clínicas estudiadas fueron edad, sexo, diagnóstico clínico, temperatura corporal, saturación de oxígeno en sangre arterial (SaO2), resultado de la radiografía de tórax y duración de la hospitalización. Las muestras obtenidas mediante aspiración nasofaríngea se estudiaron mediante inmunofluorescencia indirecta (IFI), cultivo celular y una nueva técnica de reacción en cadena de la polimerasatranscripción inversa (RT-PCR) múltiple, capaz de detectar en la misma reacción los 4 tipos de virus parainfluenza. Resultados: Se analizaron 230 muestras correspondientes a 191 pacientes. En el 35,1 % de los episodios se detectó algún virus parainfluenza: el 37,3 % correspondió al VPIH-1, el 10,4% al VPIH-2, el 38,9 % al VPIH-3 y en el 13,4 % se identificó el VPIH-4. Se amplificó ARN del virus parainfluenza tipo 4 en 10 muestras correspondientes a 9 pacientes. Todos ellos excepto uno eran menores de 2 años, con unos límites de edad entre 26 días y 23 meses. El diagnóstico clínico fue bronquiolitis o bronquitis sibilante, que en uno de ellos se acompañó de infiltrado pulmonar. Precisaron ingreso hospitalario 6 pacientes, con una SaO2 media de 89,5 % y una estancia media de 7,6 días. Discusión: Es la primera vez que se describe la circulación del VPIH-4 en España. Las infecciones ocasionadas por este virus no son tan leves como se había descrito inicialmente. La utilización de una RT-PCR múltiple permite diagnosticar infecciones respiratorias por VPIH-4 que de otra manera pasarían desapercibidas. : Objective: To describe the clinical and epidemiological characteristics of parainfluenza virus type 4 infections in pediatric patients. Methods: Inpatients and outpatients with lower respiratory tract infections were studied. Recorded data were age, sex, clinical diagnosis, temperature, oxygen saturation, chest radiograph and length of hospital stay. Nasopharyngeal aspirates were studied through indirect immunofluorescence, tissue culture and a new multiplex reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) able to identify the four types of human parainfluenza virus in the same reaction. Results: Two hundred thirty specimens from 191 patients were analyzed. Parainfluenza viruses were diagnosed in 35.1%: 37.3 % type 1, 10.4 % type 2, 38.9 % type 3 and 13.4% type 4. RNA from parainfluenza virus type 4 was amplified in 10 aspirates from nine patients. Of these, all except one were aged less than two years (range: 26 days to 23 months). The clinical diagnosis was bronchiolitis or wheezing associated with lower respiratory tract infection. Six patients required admission, with a mean oxygen saturation of 89.5 % and a mean length of hospital stay of 7.6 days. Discussion: This is the first description of the characteristics of parainfluenza virus type 4 in Spain. Infections associated with this virus are not as mild as previously thought. Application of a multiplex RT-PCR allows identification of respiratory infections due to parainfluenza virus type 4 that would otherwise be underdiagnosed.

Resumen: En 2011, la Asociación Española de Pediatría decide apoyar el proyecto más ambicioso de su recién creado Comité de Medicamentos: Pediamécum. Se trata de la primera base de datos on-line, de acceso libre, con información sobre medicamentos de uso pediátrico en España. El 17 de diciembre del 2012 se inaugura http://pediamecum.es/. Un año después, Pediamécum tiene 580 fichas. La web supera durante 2013 el millón de páginas vistas. Con motivo del aniversario de Pediamécum, se realiza una encuesta recabando la opinión de los usuarios. Se obtienen 483 respuestas. Un 95% afirma que es fácil navegar por la web y un 74% que casi siempre resuelve sus dudas sobre el uso de medicamentos en niños. La valoración global de Pediamécum es de 7,5/10. Los objetivos de Pediamécum se están cumpliendo; se refleja fundamentalmente en ser una herramienta útil para todos aquellos profesionales que atienden a niños en su práctica clínica diaria. Abstract: In 2011, the Spanish Association of Pediatrics decided to support the most ambitious project of its newly created Committee for Medicinal Products: Pediamécum. This is the first free on-line database with information on medicinal products for pediatric use in Spain. The web page http://pediamecum.es/ started on December 17 December 2012. One year later, Pediamécum includes 580 registered drugs. The website achieved more than one million page views by the end of 2013. Because of the first anniversary of Pediamécum, a survey was performed to request the feeling of users. Four hundred eighty-three responses were obtained. Ninety-five percent believed that it is easy to navigate through the web, and 74% said that their doubts about the use of medicines in children were always resolved. The overall rating of Pediamécum is 7.5/10. The aims of Pediamécum are being accomplished; which is reflected essentially due to it becoming a useful tool for all professionals who care for children in their daily clinical practice.

Objetivos: Analizar las características clínicas y virológicas de las infecciones del tracto respiratorio inferior (ITRI) de los lactantes hospitalizados en nuestro medio y encontrar parámetros clínicos, analíticos o radiológicos que se relacionen, en el momento del ingreso, con una evolución más grave. Pacientes y métodos: Se realizó un estudio prospectivo de los niños menores de 24 meses ingresados por ITRI durante seis temporadas epidemiológicas consecutivas. Resultados: Se estudiaron 617 lactantes de los cuales el 64% presentaba bronquiolitis; el 24,6%, bronquitis espástica el 4,4%, laringitis, y el 6,8%, neumonía. La edad media fue de 269 ± 188 días, la razón varón/mujer de 1,6 y la estancia media 6,6 ± 3,5 días. Se aisló al menos un agente viral en el 55,6% de los episodios, que en el 83,6% correspondió al virus respiratorio sincitial (VRS). Otros virus aislados con menor frecuencia fueron: parainfluenza (7%), adenovirus (4,3%) e influenza (4%). Se detectaron coinfecciones en el 6,2 % de los casos VRS(+). Los niños VRS(+) tuvieron menor edad (p < 0,005), mayor puntuación de la escala clínica RDAI (Respiratory Distress Assessment Instrument) (p < 0,002) y mayor duración de la hospitalización (p < 0,001) que el resto. Se realizó radiografía de tórax al 94,3% de los pacientes, en la que se encontró infiltrado y/o atelectasia pulmonar en el 39,5%, lo que se relacionó de manera significativa con fiebre > 38,5 °C y concentraciones de proteína C reactiva > 30 mg/l (p < 0,001 y p < 0,002), pero no con puntuaciones elevadas de la escala clínica, ni con saturación de oxígeno (SaO2) < 90 %, ni con ingreso prolongado. La hospitalización de más de 5 días se relacionó en el análisis bruto con menor edad (p < 0,01), escala clínica > 6(p < 0,003), SaO2 ≤ 87% (p < 0,01) y aislamiento de VRS (p < 0,001). En el análisis multivariado sólo la SaO2 ≤ 87% y la presencia de VRS se asociaron con hospitalización de más de 5 días. Conclusión: Las ITRI más frecuentes del lactante hospitalizado en nuestro medio son las bronquiolitis VRS(+), con características clínicas similares a las descritas en otros países. La hipoxia al ingreso y el aislamiento de VRS en aspirado nasofaríngeo son los factores de riesgo más importantes de hospitalización prolongada. : Objectives: The aim of this study was to assess the clinical and viro-logical characteristics of lower respiratory tract (LRT) infection in hospitalized infants in Spain and to identify clinical, radiological or laboratory parameters that could, on admission, be associated with a more severe clinical course. Patients and methods: A prospective study of infants less than 24 months old hospitalized for LRT infection during six consecutive seasons was performed. Results: A total of 617 infants were included in the study. Diagnosis was bronchiolitis in 64 %, wheezy bronchitis in 24.6%, laryngitis in 4.4% and pneumonia in 6.8%. The mean age was 269 ± 188 days, the male/female ratio was 1:6 and the mean hospital stay was 6.6 ± 3.5 days. At least one viral agent was identified in 55.6% of the episodes, of which 83.6 % were due to respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Other less frequently identified viruses were parainfluenza in 7%, adenovirus in 4.3% and influenza in 4%. Coinfection was identified in 6.2 % of RSV-positive infants. These infants were younger (p < 0.005), had higher respiratory distress assessment instrument (RDAI) scores and longer hospital stay than infants in the other etiologic groups. Chest radiographs were performed in 94.3 % of the infants and 39.5 % showed infiltrate or atelectasis. This radiological alteration was significantly associated with a fever of more than 38.5 °C and reactive C protein concentrations of more than 30 mg/L (p < 0.001 and p < 0.002), but not with higher RDAI score, SaO2 equal to or less than 87%, or longer hospital stay. In the crude analysis, hospitalization for more than 5 days was associated with lower age (p < 0.01), a mean RDAI score of more than 6 (p < 0.003), SaO2 equal to or less than 87% (p < 0.01) and RSV infection (p < 0.001). However, in the multivariate analysis only SaO2 equal to or less than 87 % and RSV infection were significantly associated with prolonged hospitalization. Conclusion: The most common lower respiratory tract infections in hospitalized infants in Spain are the various types of RSV-positive bronchiolitis, which have a clinical pattern similar to that described in other countries. Hypoxia on admission and RSV infection are the most important risk factors for prolonged hospitalization.

Objetivos: Estudiar la evolución de los lactantes que presentaron un episodio de bronquiolitis y analizar los factores de riesgo para desarrollar broncoespasmo posteriormente, conespecial atención a la presencia de eosinofilia en el episodio agudo. Pacientes y métodos: Se estudiaron los niños menores de 2 años que precisaron ingreso hospitalario por bronquiolitis durante las temporadas 1990 a 1993. Se analizaron los valores de loseosinófilos durante el episodio agudo y los episodios respiratorios posteriores compatibles con obstrucción bronquiala corto plazo (antes de los 5 años de edad), a largo plazo (después de los 5 años de edad) y la ausencia de éstos.Se valoraron otros factores de riesgo (historia familiarde asma, tabaquismo pasivo, aislamiento de virus respiratorio sincitial [VRS]). Resultados: Se estudiaron 170 pacientes (100 niños y 70 niñas) de 7,15 6 0,78 años de edad que tuvieron un episodio de bronquiolitis aguda a la edad de 5,4 6 4,2 meses. Desarrollaron episodios de obstrucción bronquial a corto plazo 113 pacientes (66,5 %) y a largo plazo 60 pacientes (35,3 %). En 56 casos la evolución fue normal.El número de pacientes con eosinófilos 1% resultó significativamente diferente entre los tres grupos de pacientes estudiados (p 5 0,029). El porcentaje de eosinófilos 1% en el momento del ingreso se asoció con episodios de obstrucción bronquial a corto plazo (p 5 0,013). Los valores medios de eosinófilos fueron más elevados en los pacientes que desarrollaron estos episodios en algún momento de su evolución (p 5 0,028). La historia familiar de asma se asoció con el desarrollo de episodios de obstrucción bronquial a largo plazo (p 5 0,033). Conclusiones: En la población estudiada la eosinofilia>1% durante elepisodio de bronquiolitis aguda en lactantes se asocia conun mayor riesgo de presentar episodios de obstrucciónbronquial en los primeros 5 años de la vida, así como lahistoria familiar de asma con el desarrollo de estos cuadrosa largo plazo. : Objectives: To investigate the final outcome of infants presenting anepisode of bronchiolitis and to analyze the risk factors forthe development of persistent wheezing, with special attentionpaid to the presence of eosinophilia during theacute episode. Patients and methods: We studied all the children aged less than 2 years whorequired hospitalization for bronchiolitis between 1990and 1993. Eosinophil values during the acute phase werecollected. Clinical evolution and outcome were classifiedin three groups: short-term persistent wheezing (if resolvedbefore the child reached the age of 5 years),long-term persistent wheezing (if the child remainedsymptomatic after the age of 5 years) and no wheezing.Other risk factors for asthma such as familial history, passivesmoking and respiratory syncytial virus isolationwere also studied. Results: We analyzed 170 patients (100 boys and 70 girls) aged7.15 6 0.78 years who suffered an episode of acute bronchiolitisat the age of 5.4 6 4.2 months. One hundred thirteenpatients (66.5 %) developed short-term persistentwheezing and 60 (35.3 %) developed long-term persistent wheezing. Fifty-six patients presented no wheezing. Thenumber of patients with eosinophils>1% was significantlydifferent in the three groups of patients (p 5 0.029).A Eosinophil values of>1% was associated with shorttermpersistent wheezing (p 5 0.013). Mean eosinophilvalues were higher in patients who developed wheezing atsome time during evolution (p 5 0.028). A familial historyof asthma was associated with the development oflong-term persistent wheezing (p 5 0.033). Conclusions: In the population studied, eosinophil values of>1%during an episode of acute bronchiolitis in infancy was associatedwith a higher risk of developing persistent wheezingin the first 5 years of life. A familial history of asthmawas associated with a higher risk of developing long-termpersistent wheezing.

Antecedentes: La alergia al látex constituye un cada vez más frecuente problema de salud, capaz de producir situaciones clínicas graves. Afecta de forma especial a grupos de riesgobien definidos, tratándose por tanto de una patología potencialmente evitable. Estos grupos de riesgo incluyen unalto porcentaje de pacientes pediátricos. Objetivo: Contribuir al conocimiento de las reacciones por hipersensibilidad al látex (RHSL) entre los pediatras. Método: Se presentan 4 casos de pacientes afectados procedentes de 2 consultas de pediatría de atención primaria, y se realiza una breve revisión del tema. Resultados: Se destacan los datos comunes a los pacientes: alta incidencia de la patología, pertenencia a grupos de riesgoen todos los casos, existencia de reacciones cruzadas conotros alergenos y diagnóstico de sospecha de la patologíarealizado en atención primaria. Conclusiones: Importancia del látex como desencadenante de reacciones por hipersensibilidad, sobre todo en grupos de riesgo establecidos. Necesidad para el pediatra de conocer esta patología, para, con un alto índice de sospecha,contribuir a su prevención. : Background: Allergy to latex has become an increasing health concern, and a potential cause for severe clinical conditions.Certain well defined risk groups have been recognized ashaving increased risk for latex allergy, making this condition potentially preventible. Pediatric patients constitute an important part of those risk groups. Objective: Contributing to the knowleldge of the hypersensitivityto latex among pediatricians. Method: We present four cases of pediatric patients seen in aprimary care context. A brief review of the matter is added. Results: Features common to the four patients are underlined:high incidency of the condition, being included in aknown risk group, cross-reaction with other allergenes,and diagnosis suspected in the primary care consultation. Conclusions: Latex constitutes an important cause of hypersensitivity reactions, specially among certain well establishedrisk groups. Pediatricians need to have an accurate knowledge of this condition, in order to contribute to its prevention

Objetivos: Conocer los patrones de prescripción de antibióticos en la población lactante y preescolar de un centro de salud de la Comunidad de Madrid, así como la necesidad o no de dicho tratamiento y su adecuación a la patología diagnosticada. Métodos: Se realizó un estudio retrospectivo de los procesos infecciosos y respiratorios, así como los ciclos de tratamiento antibiótico recibido, de todos los niños menores de 4 años, durante un año. Se analizó el facultativo prescriptor, así como la adecuación de las decisiones terapéuticas tanto positivas como negativas (sin tratamiento). Resultados: Se evaluaron 910 niños de 0-4 años, que presentaron un total de 3.847 procesos infecciosos o respiratorios con una media de 4,55 ± 3,6 por niño y año. El 63% de los niños recibió al menos un ciclo antibiótico al año, con una media de 1,63 ± 1,9 ciclos por niño y año. Se consideraron adecuadas un 85,2% de las 3.847 decisiones terapéuticas. El 36% de los procesos recibieron tratamiento antibiótico, lo cual supuso un total de 1.386 ciclos antibióticos. De ellos, el 46,2% se consideró inadecuado, mayoritariamente (71,6%) porque no debieron haberse prescrito y los restantes (28,4%) porque fueron mal elegidos. Hay diferencias entre los facultativos prescriptores, siendo la prescripción más correcta cuando se evalúa al pediatra habitual responsable de la consulta frente a otros médicos fundamentalmente de servicios de urgencias. Los antibióticos más utilizados fueron amoxicilina (41,2%) y amoxicilina-clavulánico (33%). Las cefalosporinas supusieron un 6,9% del total Conclusiones: Se detecta un uso excesivo de antibióticos en la población preescolar que debe ser corregido : Objectives: To determine antibiotic prescribing patterns in the pediatric (infants and children) population attended to at a primary health care centre in the community of Madrid. We also wanted to determine the necessity or otherwise of antibiotic therapy and whether the selected antibiotic drug was appropriate for the pathology diagnosed Methods: Retrospective study of all infectious or respiratory processes diagnosed during 1 year and of the respective antibiotic cycles prescribed in all patients under the age of 4 years. The prescribing physician and the appropriateness of all therapeutic decisions, including those where the decision was not to treat with antibiotic drugs, were analyzed Results: We evaluated 910 children under the age of 4 years with a total of 3,847 processes (mean of 4.55 ± 3.6 processes per child per year). Sixty-three percent of the children received at least one cycle of antibiotic drugs per year (mean 1.63 ± 1.69 cycles of treatment per child per year). Of all therap utic decisions, 85.2% were considered appropriate. In 36% of the processes antibiotics were prescribed (1,386 cycles), 46% of which were considered inappropriate either because no antibiotic therapy should have been given (71.6%) or because the chosen drug was not appropriate for the pathology (28.4%). There were significant differences among the evaluated physicians. The most correct decisions were taken by the pediatrician in the outpatient clinic, especially when compared with physicians in the emergency ward. The most frequently prescribed antibiotic drugs were amoxicillin (41.2%) and amoxicillin combined with clavulanic acid (33%). C phalosporin accounted only for 6.9% of the prescriptions Conclusions: Antibiotic therapy is overprescribed in children, a situation that should be corrected

Objetivo: Valorar la eficacia del pH intramucoso gástrico como guía terapéutica en niños críticamente enfermos. Métodos: Se ensaya un protocolo de tratamiento hemodinámico en 34 niños críticamente enfermos (médicos y quirúrgicos), con el objetivo final de conseguir la normalización del pH intramucoso gástrico. Se comparan las complicaciones hemodinámicas con otro grupo de pacientes críticos tratados de forma convencional. Resultados: El tratamiento administrado para mejorar la oxigenación hística (estabilización hemodinámica, expansión de volumen y perfusión de dobutamina) logró elevar los valores del pH intramucoso gástrico desde 7,25 ± 0,04 hasta 7,32 ± 0,13 de media (p = 0,014). Presentaron complicaciones hemodinámicas el 73% de los niños con valores de pH intramucoso gástrico menor de 7,30. Comparamos estos datos con los de un grupo control de 30 niños críticamente enfermos que fueron tratados según las pautas habituales de la unidad de cuidados intensivos pediátricos. En este grupo, desarrollaron complicaciones hemodinámicas el 93,8% de los niños con valores de pH intramucoso gástrico inferior a 7,30 (p = 0,048). Conclusiones: El pH intramucoso gástrico puede ser útil como guía para el tratamiento hemodinámico de niños críticamente enfermos. : Objective: To determine whether gastric intramucosal pH can be used as an indicator for the treatment of critically ill children. Methods: A protocol for hemodynamic treatment was tested in 34 critically ill children (medical and surgical patients). Endpoint was considered as normalization of gastric intramucosal pH. Hemodynamic complications were compared with another group of criticially ill patients who received conventional treatment. Results: Treatment designed to improve tissue oxygenation (hemodynamic stabilization, volume expansion, and dobutamine perfusion) raised pHi values from 7.25 ± 0.04 to 7.32 ± 0.13 (p = 0.014). Seventy-three percent of the children with pHi < 7.30 presented hemodynamic complications. These findings were compared with the results obtained in a control group of 30 critically-ill children given conventional treatment in the pediatric intensive care unit. In this group, 93.8% of the children with a pHi < 7.30 developed hemodynamic complications. Conclusions: We conclude that gastric intramucosal pHi can be useful as an indicator for the hemodynamic treatment of critically ill children.

In 2011, the Spanish Association of Pediatrics decided to support the most ambitious project of its newly created Committee for Medicinal Products: Pediamécum. This is the first free on-line database with information on medicinal products for pediatric use in Spain. The web page http://pediamecum.es/ started on December 17 December 2012. One year later, Pediamécum includes 580 registered drugs. The website achieved more than one million page views by the end of 2013. Because of the first anniversary of Pediamécum, a survey was performed to request the feeling of users. Four hundred eighty-three responses were obtained. Ninety-five percent believed that it is easy to navigate through the web, and 74% said that their doubts about the use of medicines in children were always resolved. The overall rating of Pediamécum is 7.5/10. The aims of Pediamécum are being accomplished; which is reflected essentially due to it becoming a useful tool for all professionals who care for children in their daily clinical practice.

Resumen: Presentamos el Documento de consenso sobre sinusitis de la Sociedad Española de Infectología Pediátrica, la Asociación Española de Pediatría de Atención Primaria, la Sociedad Española de Pediatría Extrahospitalaria y Atención Primaria y la Sociedad Española de Otorrinolaringología y Patología Cérvico-Facial. La sinusitis es una enfermedad de diagnóstico difícil, a menudo no reconocida. Se analiza la etiología, la clínica y los criterios diagnósticos más aceptados, y se realizan recomendaciones terapéuticas acordes con la situación epidemiológica actual. Se propone la amoxicilina por vía oral como tratamiento antibiótico de elección, en dosis de 80 mg/kg al día repartidos cada 8 h. Se indican tratamientos alternativos en casos especiales y en ausencia de eficacia de la amoxicilina. Se revisan las principales complicaciones de la enfermedad. Abstract: The Spanish National Consensus (Spanish Society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Spanish Association of Primary Care Pediatrics, Spanish Society of Pediatric Outpatient and Primary Care, Spanish Society of Otorhinolaryngology and Cervical-Facial Pathology) on Sinusitis is presented. Rhinosinusitis is a difficult to diagnose and often unrecognised disease. The document discusses the aetiology, the clinical signs and symptoms, and the diagnostic criteria. A proposal for treatment is made based on the epidemiological situation in our country. Oral amoxicillin is the treatment of choice (80 mg/kg/day divided every 8 hours). Alternative treatment is proposed in special cases and when amoxicillin is not sufficient. The main complications are reviewed.

Resumen: La prevalencia del asma ha aumentado en las últimas décadas, especialmente en los países desarrollados, por motivos no bien esclarecidos. En los últimos años se ha observado una asociación entre el uso de paracetamol en distintas etapas de la vida, incluyendo la gestación y la infancia, y la prevalencia de asma. El carácter observacional de los estudios publicados no permite establecer una relación causal. Sería necesario realizar ensayos clínicos para comprobar la naturaleza de la asociación, que podría deberse a la presencia de diversos factores de confusión. Las sociedades pediátricas españolas firmantes de este artículo consideran que los datos disponibles hasta la fecha no son suficientes para desaconsejar el uso de paracetamol durante la gestación ni en niños asmáticos o con riesgo de asma. Abstract: Asthma prevalence has increased over the last few decades, especially in developed countries, and possibly due to different reasons. An association between paracetamol use or exposure at different periods of life, including gestation and childhood, and asthma prevalence has been observed in the last few years. Causality can not be established from observational reports, due to the arguable presence of many confounding factors and biases. Randomised trials are needed to elucidate the nature of this association. The Spanish Paediatric societies subscribing to this paper consider that current evidence is insufficient to discourage the use of paracetamol during gestation or in children with or at risk of asthma.

The Spanish National Consensus (Spanish Society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Spanish Association of Primary Care Pediatrics, Spanish Society of Pediatric Outpatient and Primary Care, Spanish Society of Otorhinolaryngology and Cervical-Facial Pathology) on Sinusitis is presented. Rhinosinusitis is a difficult to diagnose and often unrecognised disease. The document discusses the aetiology, the clinical signs and symptoms, and the diagnostic criteria. A proposal for treatment is made based on the epidemiological situation in our country. Oral amoxicillin is the treatment of choice (80mg/kg/day divided every 8hours). Alternative treatment is proposed in special cases and when amoxicillin is not sufficient. The main complications are reviewed.

Asthma prevalence has increased over the last few decades, especially in developed countries, and possibly due to different reasons. An association between paracetamol use or exposure at different periods of life, including gestation and childhood, and asthma prevalence has been observed in the last few years. Causality can not be established from observational reports, due to the arguable presence of many confounding factors and biases. Randomised trials are needed to elucidate the nature of this association. The Spanish Paediatric societies subscribing to this paper consider that current evidence is insufficient to discourage the use of paracetamol during gestation or in children with or at risk of asthma.

There are currently several national guidelines on the appropriate empirical use of antibiotics in Spanish children. But, do the Spanish paediatricians use these guidelines when prescribing antimicrobials?A national study from was conducted from April to June 2012 using an on-line questionnaire on the empirical selection of antibiotics in children. An e-mail was sent to paediatrician members of the Spanish Association of Paediatrics (AEP) or its Regional or Paediatric Specialties Societies. Current guidelines and consensus documents were used to determine the appropriateness of the responses.A total of 1214 responses were received. Eighty five per cent of the treatments selected by Spanish paediatricians were adjusted to guidelines. The least appropriate responses were obtained in those infectious diseases with no national consensus document at the time of the survey (73% in this case).Spanish paediatricians mainly select empirical antibiotics in accordance with current guidelines. However, there are features that could be improved in our country. The preparing and implementation of national consensus documents on the management of paediatric infectious diseases should be continued. We propose to regularly perform these kinds of surveys, including real prescription studies, and to also extend it to other paediatric specialities, in order to promote appropriateness of use of all the paediatric drugs in our country.

This is the consensus document on acute otitis media (AOM) of the Sociedad Española de Infectología Pediatrica (SEIP), Sociedad Española de Pediatría Extrahospitalaria y Atención Primaria (SEPEAP), Sociedad Española de Urgencias Pediátricas (SEUP) and Asociación Española de Pediatría de Atención Primaria (AEPAP). It discusses the aetiology of the disease and its potential changes after the introduction of the pneumococcal 7-valent, 10-valent and 13-valent vaccines. A proposal is made based on diagnostic classification of otitis media as either confirmed or likely. AOM is considered confirmed if 3 criteria are fulfilled: acute onset, signs of occupation of the middle ear (or otorrhea) and inflammatory signs or symptoms, such as otalgia or severe tympanic hyperaemia. Oral amoxicillin is the antibiotic treatment of choice (80mg/kg/day divided every 8hours). Amoxicillin-clavulanate (80mg/kg/day) is indicated in the following cases: when the child is under 6 months, in infants with severe clinical manifestations (fever39°C or severe pain), there is family history of AOM sequels, and after amoxiciline treatment failure.

Resumen: Se presenta el documento de consenso sobre otitis media aguda (OMA) de la Sociedad de Española Infectología Pediátrica (SEIP), Sociedad Española de Pediatría Extrahospitalaria y Atención Primaria (SEPEAP), Sociedad Española de Urgencias Pediátricas (SEUP) y de la Asociación Española de Pediatría de Atención Primaria (AEPAP).Se analizan la etiología de la enfermedad y los posibles cambios de esta después de la introducción de la vacunas antineumocócicas 7-valente, 10-valente y 13-valente. Se hace una propuesta diagnóstica basada en la clasificación de la otitis media aguda en confirmada o probable. Se considera OMA confirmada si hay coincidencia de 3 criterios: comienzo agudo, signos de ocupación del oído medio (u otorrea) y signos o síntomas inflamatorios, como otalgia o intensa hiperemia timpánica y OMA probable cuando existan solo 2 criterios. Se propone como tratamiento antibiótico de elección la amoxicilina oral a 80 mg/kg/día repartido cada 8 h. El tratamiento con amoxicilina-ácido clavulánico a dosis de 80 mg/kg/día se indica si el niño es menor de 6 meses, en lactantes con clínica grave (fiebre > 39 °C o dolor muy intenso), cuando haya historia familiar de secuelas óticas por OMA o un fracaso terapéutico de la amoxicilina. Abstract: This is the consensus document on acute otitis media (AOM) of the Sociedad Española de Infectología Pediatrica (SEIP), Sociedad Española de Pediatría Extrahospitalaria y Atención Primaria (SEPEAP), Sociedad Española de Urgencias Pediátricas (SEUP) and Asociación Española de Pediatría de Atención Primaria (AEPAP). It discusses the aetiology of the disease and its potential changes after the introduction of the pneumococcal 7-valent, 10-valent and 13-valent vaccines. A proposal is made based on diagnostic classification of otitis media as either confirmed or likely. AOM is considered confirmed if 3 criteria are fulfilled: acute onset, signs of occupation of the middle ear (or otorrhea) and inflammatory signs or symptoms, such as otalgia or severe tympanic hyperaemia. Oral amoxicillin is the antibiotic treatment of choice (80 mg/kg/day divided every 8 hours). Amoxicillin-clavulanate (80 mg/kg/day) is indicated in the following cases: when the child is under 6 months, in infants with severe clinical manifestations (fever > 39° C or severe pain), there is family history of AOM sequels, and after amoxiciline treatment failure.

[ES] Introducción: entre las ventajas de la lactancia materna (LM) se incluye su papel protector ante infecciones respiratorias (IR). Objetivos: describir el patrón de LM de una cohorte de recién nacidos (RN) y su protección contra las IR en el lactante. Material y métodos: estudio prospectivo de 316 RN, de las áreas 8 y 9 de Madrid, desde el nacimiento mediante llamadas telefónicas quincenales durante el invierno, registrando datos clínicos y epidemiológicos. Si presentaban sintomatología compatible con IR se recogió aspirado nasofaríngeo. Resultados: mil ochocientas sesenta y cinco llamadas (mediana: 4,2 [1-11]) y 106 visitas programadas. Al mes, el 56,1% recibía LM exclusiva; a los tres meses, el 39,4%, y a los cinco meses, el 31,9%. La LM exclusiva se mantuvo 65,1 días (desviación estándar: 43,49) y ningún factor se asoció a una mayor duración. Hubo 89 episodios de IR aguda. Los hermanos escolares multiplican por 1,74 (intervalo de confianza del 95% [IC 95%]: 1,12-2,72) el riesgo de IR en todos los estratos de duración de LM exclusiva. El riesgo de infección se multiplica por cinco (IC 95%: 2,07-12,19) si la LM exclusiva dura menos de un mes, por 9,8 (IC 95%: 4,06-23,66) si dura entre 30 y 60 días y por 3,4 (IC 95%: 1,28-9,19) si dura entre 60 y 90 días. Conclusiones: aunque muchos RN inician LM exclusiva, solo la tercera parte la mantiene a los cinco meses. Ningún factor se asoció a mayor duración de la misma. La LM es un factor protector de IR cuando dura más de 90 días. Se debe fomentar el mantenimiento de la LM más allá del tercer mes, especialmente en aquellos con hermanos escolares. [EN] Background: the protective role against respiratory infections is included among the advantages of breastfeeding (BF). Objective: to describe the pattern of BF in a cohort of newborns and its protective role against respiratory infections (RI) in the infant. Material and methods: a cohort of 316 newborns (NB) from Madrid Health Districts 8 and 9 was followed by telephone calls every fortnight during the winter season recording clinical and epidemiological data. Nasopharyngeal aspirate was obtained in every patient with symptoms compatible with RI. Results: one thousand, eight hundred and sixty-five phone calls [median: 4.2 (1-11)], and 106 scheduled visits were conducted. At the age of 1 month 56.1% of the infants were exclusively breastfed, at 3 months 39.4% and at 5 months 31.9%. The duration of BF was 65.1 days (SD: 43.49) and no factors were associated to a longer duration. Eighty nine acute RI were registered. The presence of siblings in school age increased the risk of RI by 1.74 (CI 95%: 1.12-2.72) in all the strata of duration of exclusive BF. The risk of RI increased by 5 (CI 95%: 2.07-12.19) if breastfeeding lasted less than 1 month, by 9,8 (CI 95%: 4,06-23,66) between 30-60 days and by 3,4 (CI 95%: 1.28-9,19) if it lasted 60-90 days. Conclusions: though many NB begin BF, only a third part of them go on with it at the age of 5 months. No covariant was associated with a longer duration. BF is a protector factor against RI when it lasts more than 90 days. So it must be promoted specially in those infants with siblings in school age. Sí

Recurrent fever is a relatively common problem during childhood. Diagnosis is often easy and related to mild viral infections. However a small proportion of these cases originate from an underlying non-infectious process that is generally difficult to diagnose. In this paper we describe the differential diagnosis of recurrent or periodic fever versus other processes, with especial attention to autoinflammatory disorders (AD). AD are alterations of innate immunity, and they have been recently classified as an immunodeficiency. Anyhow, since infections are not present, these processes are different to the classic primary immunodeficiency. An important part of AD is of known genetic aetiology. The symptoms originate from an underlying inflammatory process and can have different clinical expressions. One of the most relevant groups is the hereditary syndromes of periodic fever. This group of diseases associates recurrent fever and several clinical symptoms with a relative periodicity, separated by intervals free or almost free of symptoms. We include the diagnostic criteria for some processes as well as the characteristics that should, eventually, lead to a genetic study. Although treatment should be individualised, we also include some general recommendations.

Resumen Antecedentes El virus respiratorio sincitial (VRS) y otros virus son causas conocidas de hospitalización en lactantes. Menos conocido es el patrón de virus en infecciones extrahospitalarias en menores de 6 meses. Objetivo El objetivo de este estudio es describir las características clínicas y los factores epidemiológicos asociados con las infecciones respiratorias virales de ámbito extrahospitalario en menores de 6 meses. Pacientes y métodos Estudio prospectivo en cohorte de niños de las áreas 8 y 9 de Madrid controlados desde el nacimiento mediante llamadas telefónicas quincenales durante una temporada invernal. Se registraron datos clínicos y epidemiológicos en cuestionarios prediseñados. Se exploró y recogió el aspirado nasofaríngeo (ANF) cuando el paciente presentó sintomatología compatible con una infección respiratoria. El diagnóstico de los virus más comunes se realizó con inmunofluorescencia directa (IFD) y amplificación genómica (PCR). Resultados Fueron seleccionados 316 recién nacidos. Se realizaron 1.865 llamadas telefónicas (mediana 4), y 106 visitas, en 89 de las cuales se confirmó la enfermedad. Los síntomas más frecuentes fueron rinitis (91 %) y tos (69 %). El diagnóstico clínico principal fue infección respiratoria de vías altas (82 %); 17 de 72 ANF realizados (23,2 %) fueron positivos. Se detectaron rinovirus (41,1 %) y VRS (35,2 %). Ingresaron un 16 % (17/106) de los niños atendidos por enfermedad (el 5,3% de la cohorte), diagnosticados de síndrome febril y de bronquiolitis. No encontramos ningún factor epidemiológico asociado con la infección respiratoria viral en los casos positivos. Conclusiones En nuestro medio las infecciones respiratorias de los lactantes son en su mayoría banales y no precisan atención hospitalaria. El rinovirus y el VRS son los principales agentes etiológicos. No se encontraron factores epidemiológicos relacionados con la infección respiratoria asociada a virus.

The aim of this study was to establish the reference values of the Homeostasis Model Assessment (HOMA) and Quantitative Insulin Sensitivity Check (QUICKI) indexes, as well as those of insulin and C-peptide levels in healthy children and adolescents with a view to determining reference percentiles to detect those at cardiovascular risk.A total of 372 children boys and girls of different ages and at distinct pubertal stages with normal body mass index participated in the study. Fasting glucose, insulin and C-peptide values were measured by chemiluminescence and the HOMA and QUICKI indexes were calculated.Fasting glucose levels were normal in all children. The mean values obtained for each variable were (mean (SD)): fasting glucose 87(7.75) mg/dL, insulin 7.74 (5.35) microU/mL, C-peptide: 1.76 (0.79) ng/mL, HOMA index 1.72 (1.27) and QUICKI index 0.72 (0.29). All the variables progressively increased with age, with statistically significant differences between prepubertal and pubertal children. The QUICKI index showed an inverse relationship. In addition, significant differences were found between sexes. The 90th percentile for all the variables was as follows: insulin 15.05 microU/mL, C-peptide: 2.85 ng/mL, HOMA index 3.43 and QUICKI index 1.10.Values of fasting glucose, insulin, C-peptide and the HOMA index significantly increased with age and pubertal stage, while the QUICKI index decreased. We defined the 90th percentile for all the parameters studied as the cut-off point to identify children at cardiovascular risk in our population.

Antecedentes El rinovirus se considera un agente causal de cuadros catarrales banales, sin embargo se ha descrito como un agente inductor de exacerbaciones asmáticas en adultos y niños mayores. En nuestro medio no se ha descrito el papel del rinovirus en infecciones respiratorias de niños hospitalizados. Objetivos Describir las infecciones confirmadas por rinovirus en niños hospitalizados por infección respiratoria en un hospital de segundo nivel. Pacientes y métodos Estudio descriptivo prospectivo de las infecciones confirmadas por rinovirus en niños hospitalizados por fiebre o infección respiratoria en la temporada 2004-2005. Para el diagnóstico virológico se realizó inmunofluorescencia y reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) en aspirado nasofaríngeo. Se describen las características clínicas de los pacientes. Resultados Se describen un total de 76 niños hospitalizados con infección por rinovirus, lo que supuso el 25 % de los pacientes hospitalizados por procesos respiratorios o fiebre. El rinovirus fue el segundo agente viral identificado tras el virus respiratorio sincitial (29,9% de los hospitalizados). El 71,1 % de los pacientes fueron menores de 2 años. Los diagnósticos más frecuentes fueron sibilancias recurrentes en el 60,5 %, bronquiolitis en 23,7 %, neumonía en el 7,9 % e infección respiratoria de vías altas en el 5,3%. Presentaron fiebre de más de 38 °C el 57,9 % de los niños e infiltrado radiológico el 23,7%. Presentaron hipoxia el 43,4% de los niños. En niños mayores de 2 años el diagnóstico fue crisis asmática en 21 de los 22 casos. Conclusiones Los rinovirus se detectaron en un importante porcentaje de los niños hospitalizados a consecuencia de infección respiratoria, siendo precedidos en frecuencia sólo por el virus respiratorio sincitial. En nuestra serie es el agente viral más frecuentemente asociado con episodios de sibilancias recurrentes en niños mayores de 2 años, y el segundo en los más pequeños.

Influenza is a major cause of respiratory tract illness in infants. The clinical characteristics of these infections are non-specific and the burden of influenza is frequently underestimated in very young children. The objective of this study was to describe confirmed influenza infections in infants2 years attended in a level II public hospital. A second-rate aim was to compare influenza infections in hospitalized infants with respiratory syncytial virus (VRS) infection in the same population.We performed a descriptive, prospective study between 1991 and 2003 in infants younger than 24 months of age, who were admitted to the Severo Ochoa Hospital (Leganés. Madrid) with fever or respiratory tract infection. Virological diagnosis was made with direct immunofluorescent assay and/or reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction on specimens obtained from nasopharyngeal washings. The patients' clinical characteristics were recorded. Patients with influenza infection were compared with a similar group of infants with RSV infection.We analyzed hospitalized 100 infants with influenza infection. Influenza caused 4.1% of the admissions in infants with fever or respiratory tract infection. Influenza A was isolated in 83%, influenza B in 12% and influenza C in 5% of the patients. The mean age of hospitalized infants was 8.3 +/- 5.9 months and the most frequent clinical diagnoses were bronchiolitis in 38%, recurrent wheezing in 25%, upper respiratory tract infection in 19% and pneumonia in 9%. Fever38 degrees C was present in 83% of the patients. Radiologic infiltrate was found in 65% of the children. Oxygen saturation less then 95% was present in 44%. In children under 6 months of age fever was less frequent (p = 0.049) and upper respiratory tract infection was more frequent (p = 0.01). Patients with influenza virus infection were older (p = 0.002), more frequently presented fever (p0.0001) and radiologic infiltrate (p0.001) than infants with RSV infection. Bronchiolitis was more frequent in the RSV group (p = 0.006).Influenza infection is a major cause of respiratory tract disease in hospitalized infants. It is an etiologic cause of bronchiolitis, recurrent wheezing, and fever and radiologic consolidations are frequent. Clinical presentation is milder in children under 6 month of age. The characteristics of influenza infection differ substantially from those of RSV infection.

Spondylodiscitis is a relatively uncommon entity in infancy and childhood, with typical, although non-specific symptoms. The aim of this study was to describe the clinical features at presentation and follow-up in patients diagnosed with spondylodiscitis in hospitals in the Autonomous Community of Madrid.All cases of spondylodiscitis diagnosed in children in the hospitals of La Paz, Niño Jesús, Gregorio Marañón, Severo Ochoa, Doce de Octubre and Getafe in Madrid were reviewed. Their clinical features, diagnostic tests, treatment and follow-up were analyzed.Twenty children with a mean age of 37 months were studied. The level of disc involvement was L5-S1 in six patients, L2-L3 in five, L3-L4 in four, C6-C7 in two, and D12-L1 in one. The mean time before diagnosis was 20 +/- 16 days. The most frequent symptoms were gait disturbances, limping, or inability to remain seated. Eleven patients had low grade fever (38.5 degrees C). Other less specific symptoms were irritability, constipation and abdominal pain. All patients presented moderate leukocytosis without neutrophilia. The mean erythrocyte sedimentation rate was 60 +/- 26. The most frequently used diagnostic tests were conventional spine radiographs, technetium-99m bone scan and magnetic resonance imaging. All patients received antibiotics; three received oral antibiotics only and the remaining patients received intravenous and oral antibiotics. The most frequently prescribed antibiotics were cefuroxime, cloxacillin and amoxicillin-clavulanate. The duration of treatment ranged between 3 and 8 weeks. All patients had a favorable outcome, although in eight, radiological sequelae were observed.Spondylodiscitis is not exceptional in childhood and awareness of this entity among pediatricians should be increased.

Antecedentes El metapneumovirus humano es un virus de reciente descripción al que se atribuyen infecciones respiratorias que afectan fundamentalmente a la población infantil. Objetivos Conocer la incidencia de infecciones por metapneumovirus en lactantes hospitalizados, así como sus características clínicas y la posible presencia de coinfecciones con otros agentes virales. Pacientes y métodos Estudio prospectivo realizado de septiembre a junio de 2003 en todos los niños menores de 2 años ingresados en la Unidad de Lactantes del Hospital Severo Ochoa de Leganés (Madrid), por infección respiratoria. La detección de agentes virales se realizó mediante recogida de aspirado nasofaríngeo y realización de inmunofluorescencia directa y/o reacción en cadena de la polimerasa-transcripción inversa (RT-PCR). Descripción de las características clínicas y epidemiológicas de los procesos respiratorios de los pacientes con detección positiva para metapneumovirus humano. Resultados Ingresaron 200 lactantes con patología respiratoria durante el período mencionado, de los cuales en 18 se detectó infección por metapneumovirus humano (9% de los pacientes). El metapneumovirus humano supuso un 13,8% de los aislamientos virales positivos. El 100 % de estos niños ingresaron en marzo-abril. La edad media fue de 6,7 ± 6,1 meses. El 38,8 % desarrolló una bronquiolitis y en el 55,5 % se objetivó un episodio recurrente de sibilancias. El 55,5 % de los niños precisó oxigenoterapia durante el ingreso. Se encontraron coinfecciones con otros agentes virales en el 33,3 % de estos pacientes. Conclusiones El metapneumovirus humano es un agente viral muy frecuente en los lactantes afectados de enfermedad respiratoria, causando fundamentalmente bronquiolitis y episodios recurrentes de sibilancias. Es más frecuente en primavera y tiene una alta tendencia a la coinfección con otros virus.

The routine use of chest radiograph in infants with bronchiolitis increases health costs and can often unnecessarily expose the patient to radiation.To evaluate the prevalence of infiltrate/atelectasis in infants younger than 2 years who presented to the emergency department with bronchiolitis, to assess whether patient management is changed after viewing the chest radiograph and to determine which clinical variables can accurately identify children with normal radiographs, with a view to reducing unnecessary radiological investigations.From October 2003 to December 2004, infants aged24 months evaluated in the emergency department of the Severo Ochoa Hospital (Madrid) with a diagnosis of bronchiolitis were included in this study. The variables registered were age, sex, time since onset, respiratory rate, temperature, asymmetry on auscultation, oxygen saturation and the virus identified. A chest radiograph was obtained and the need for admission was evaluated before and after obtaining the results.Two hundred fifty-two infants were included, of which 50 % were aged less than 5 months. Infiltrate/atelectasis was identified in 14.3 % (95 % CI: 10.1-18.5; kappa coefficient: 0.64). Patients with infiltrate/atelectasis were 2.5 times more likely to have a temperature ofor = 38 degrees C (p: 0.004), O2 saturation of94 % (p: 0,006) and to be admitted before the results of chest radiograph were known. No differences were found between children with and without infiltrate in age at presentation, sex, disease duration, respiratory rate or identified virus. Patient management was modified in 30 % of patients with infiltrate/ atelectasis. Patients with a temperature of38 degrees and O2 saturation of94 % had a 92 % probability of normal chest radiograph.Most infants presenting with bronchiolitis had a normal chest radiograph. Temperatureor = 38 degrees and O2 saturation94 % were significantly associated with infiltrate/atelectasis. In most infants with bronchiolitis, the absence of fever and hypoxia are good predictors of normal chest radiographs.

[ES] Antecedentes: El metapneumovirus humano es un virus de reciente descripción al que se atribuyen infecciones respiratorias que afectan fundamentalmente a la población infantil. Objetivos: Conocer la incidencia de infecciones por metapneumovirus en lactantes hospitalizados, así como sus características clínicas y la posible presencia de coinfecciones con otros agentes virales. Pacientes y métodos: Estudio prospectivo realizado de septiembre a junio de 2003 en todos los niños menores de 2 años ingresados en la Unidad de Lactantes del Hospital Severo Ochoa de Leganés (Madrid), por infección respiratoria. La detección de agentes virales se realizó mediante recogida de aspirado nasofaríngeo y realización de inmunofluorescencia directa y/o reacción en cadena de la polimerasa-transcripción inversa (RT-PCR). Descripción de las características clínicas y epidemiológicas de los procesos respiratorios de los pacientes con detección positiva para metapneumovirus humano. Resultados: Ingresaron 200 lactantes con patología respiratoria durante el período mencionado, de los cuales en 18 se detectó infección por metapneumovirus humano (9% de los pacientes). El metapneumovirus humano supuso un 13,8% de los aislamientos virales positivos. El 100 % de estos niños ingresaron en marzo-abril. La edad media fue de 6,7 ± 6,1 meses. El 38,8 % desarrolló una bronquiolitis y en el 55,5 % se objetivó un episodio recurrente de sibilancias. El 55,5 % de los niños precisó oxigenoterapia durante el ingreso. Se encontraron coinfecciones con otros agentes virales en el 33,3 % de estos pacientes. Conclusiones: El metapneumovirus humano es un agente viral muy frecuente en los lactantes afectados de enfermedad respiratoria, causando fundamentalmente bronquiolitis y episodios recurrentes de sibilancias. Es más frecuente en primavera y tiene una alta tendencia a la coinfección con otros virus. [EN] Background: Human metapneumovirus (hPMV) is a recently identified virus that is recognized as a cause of respiratory tract illness in the pediatric population. Objectives: To determine the incidence of respiratory tract infections caused by hPMV in hospitalized infants and to describe the clinical characteristics and possible presence of coinfection with other viral agents. Patients and methods: We performed a prospective study from September to June 2003 in all children aged less than 24 months who were admitted to the Severo Ochoa Hospital (Leganés, Madrid) with a respiratory tract infection. Virological diagnosis was made with a direct immunofluorescent assay and/or reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction on specimens obtained from nasopharyngeal washing. Demographic and clinical data from patients with an hPMV respiratory tract infection were analyzed. Results: During the study period, 200 infants were admitted with a respiratory tract infection, of which 18 (9 %) had an hPMV infection. HPMV was the viral agent isolated in 13.8 % of positive nasopharyngeal washings. All patients were admitted between March and April. The mean age was 6.7 +/- 6.1 months. The most common diagnoses were recurrent wheezing (55.5 %) and bronchiolitis (38.8 %). Oxygen therapy was required by 55.5 % of infants during hospitalization. Coinfection with other respiratory viruses was confirmed in 33.3 % of the patients. Conclusions: Human metapneumovirus is a major cause of respiratory tract illness in hospitalized infants. This virus causes mainly bronchiolitis and recurrent wheezing and is more frequent in spring. Coinfection with other respiratory viruses is frequent. Sí

Nosocomial gastroenteritis is frequent in pediatric hospital wards. Between 20% and 50% of gastroenteritis cases caused by rotavirus and astrovirus are of nosocomial origin.To determine the incidence of nosocomial rotavirus and astrovirus gastroenteritis in our environment, the incidence of asymptomatic infection with these viruses, and to identify the G serotypes of the rotaviruses detected.We performed a prospective study of all children under 2 years of age admitted to a neonatology unit over a 1-year period who were followed-up for the presence of diarrhea and periodic study of feces to detect the presence of rotavirus and astrovirus antigens by enzyme immunoassay (EIA). Patients with gastroenteritis also underwent bacteria stool culture, adenovirus detection by EIA, calcivirus detection by polymerase chain reaction, and analysis of rotavirus G serotypes by EIA with monoclonal antibodies.Of 666 children admitted without diarrhea, 60 presented nosocomial gastroenteritis (9 % of patients admitted and 1.75 per 100 days of hospital stay): 34 presented rotavirus (5 % of patients) and two presented astrovirus (0.3 % of patients). Of the 329 patients without diarrhea who were studied, viral elimination was detected in 27: rotavirus in 23 patients and astrovirus in four. Viral infection was detected on admission in 13 patients (4 %) and after 72 hours in 14 patients (4.2 %) (asymptomatic nosocomial infection). No differences in the distribution of rotavirus G serotypes were observed between community-acquired and nosocomial gastroenteritis.These data confirm the importance of viral etiology in nosocomial gastroenteritis and allow us to evaluate asymptomatic fecal elimination of rotavirus as one of the factors in the transmission of this infection.

Once-daily dosing (ODD) of gentamicin is advocated as an effective and safe treatment of Gram-negative bacterial infections in adults. There are insufficient data in the literature to justify its use in infants.To compare the efficacy of ODD of gentamicin with that of classical thrice-daily (t.i.d.) administration in infants with acute pyelonephritis.We performed a quasi-experimental study comparing 33 infants who received ODD of gentamicin with a historical control group of 25 infants treated with gentamicin t.i.d. Leukocytosis, C-reactive protein, creatinine, gentamicin dose, peak and trough values, time required for disappearance of fever, and outcome were analyzed.The mean doses of gentamicin (mg/kg/day) were higher in the t.i.d. group (6.4 1.14) than in the ODD group (5.06 0.22; p0.001). Peak serum gentamicin concentrations (micro g/ml) were significantly higher in the ODD group (9.32 1.4) than in the t.i.d. group (5.09 1.15; p0.001). Mean trough gentamicin concentrations (micro g/ml) were lower in the ODD group than in the t.i.d. group (0.23 0.26 vs 0.78 0.45; p 0.001). There were no significant differences in the duration of fever between the groups (30.64 32 hours in the t.i.d. group vs. 28.57 32 hours in the ODD group). Serum creatinine levels were normal during treatment in both groups. In all patients outcome was good and no adverse effects were noted.Treatment with ODD of gentamicin in our population of infants with acute pyelonephritis was as effective as traditional administration t.i.d. and possibly was equally safe or safer.

To establish the reference ranges of thyrotropin (TSH), free triiodothyronine (FT3) and free thyroxine (FT4) with the chemiluminescence method in healthy children and adolescents in Madrid, Spain.A total of 371 children and adolescents of both sexes, with different ages and at different pubertal stage participated in the study. Serum values of TSH, FT3, and FT4 were determined by chemiluminescence.TSH, FT4 and FT3 reference ranges decreased inversely with chronological age. Significant differences were found between prepubertal and pubertal groups. In some groups, there were also occasional differences between sexes.Thyroid hormone levels decrease with chronological age. Because of the differences in hormone levels between prepubertal and pubertal subjects, we believe that different pubertal stages should be included in the standard reference values of these hormones.

Bacterial resistance to antimicrobial drugs constitutes a considerable problem in clinical practice. Overprescribing of these drugs contributes to bacterial resistance and current literature shows a growing interest in the rationalization of antibiotic use.To observe the appropriateness of antibiotic prescriptions to children in an outpatient primary care setting, before and after a critical analysis of prescribing habits was performed.Children aged 0-4 years attending the outpatient pediatric clinic were surveyed in two different periods: 1997 and 2000. The number of visits, infectious and respiratory diseases observed, and courses of antibiotics prescribed was determined.A total of 456 children, 2,339 diseases, and 829 antibiotic prescriptions were included. Several differences were observed between the two periods: the number of antibiotic courses administered to each child in one year averaged 2.3 in the first period and 1.5 in the second (p0.001). The number of processes receiving antibiotic prescription decreased from 38.8 % to 31.7 % (p0.001). The appropriateness of the decision to treat increased from 85.1 % to 93.3 % (p0.001), and the appropriateness of the antibiotic prescribed increased from 56.3 % to 78.7 % (p0.001). The most frequently diagnosed infectious diseases were common cold, tonsillopharyngitis, otitis and bronchitis. The most frequently prescribed antibiotic drugs were amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanate and V penicillin.Physicians' knowledge of their own antibiotics prescription profiles with subsequent critical comparative analysis with current literature on the subject can help to modify prescribing habits.

Allergy to latex has become an increasing health concern, and a potential cause for severe clinical conditions. Certain well defined risk groups have been recognized as having increased risk for latex allergy, making this condition potentially preventable. Pediatric patients constitute an important part of those risk groups.Contributing to the knowledge of the hypersensitivity to latex among pediatricians.We present four cases of pediatric patients seen in a primary care context. A brief review of the matter is added.Features common to the four patients are underlined: high incidence of the condition, being included in a known risk group, cross-reaction with other allergens, and diagnosis suspected in the primary care consultation.Latex constitutes an important cause of hypersensitivity reactions, specially among certain well established risk groups. Pediatricians need to have an accurate knowledge of this condition, in order to contribute to its prevention

Resumen: La faringoamigdalitis aguda (FAA) es una de las enfermedades más comunes en la infancia. La etiología más frecuente es vírica. Entre las causas bacterianas, el principal agente responsable es Streptococcus pyogenes o estreptococo beta hemolítico del grupo A (EbhGA). Las escalas de valoración clínica son una buena ayuda para seleccionar a qué niños se deben practicar las técnicas de detección rápida de antígeno estreptocócico (TDR) y/o el cultivo de muestras faringoamigdalares. Sin su empleo, se tiende al sobrediagnóstico de FAA estreptocócica, con la consiguiente prescripción innecesaria de antibióticos, muchas veces de amplio espectro. Los objetivos del tratamiento son: acelerar la resolución de los síntomas, reducir el tiempo de contagio y prevenir las complicaciones supurativas locales y no supurativas. Idealmente, solo deben tratarse los casos confirmados. En caso de no disponibilidad de la TDR, o en algunos casos, ante un resultado negativo, se recomienda obtener cultivo e iniciar tratamiento a la espera de los resultados, solo si la sospecha clínica es alta. Los antibióticos de elección para el tratamiento de la FAA estreptocócica son penicilina y amoxicilina. Amoxicilina-clavulánico no está indicado de forma empírica en la infección aguda. Los macrólidos tampoco son un tratamiento de primera elección; su uso debe reservarse para pacientes con alergia inmediata a penicilina o como tratamiento erradicador, en los casos indicados. Es urgente y prioritario en nuestro país adecuar la prescripción de antibióticos a la evidencia científica disponible. Abstract: Acute tonsillopharyngitis is one of the most common childhood diseases. Viruses are the most frequent origin. Group A Streptococcus (Streptococcus pyogenes) is the main bacterial cause. A culture or a rapid antigen-detection test of a throat-swab specimen should only be done on the basis of clinical scores, in order to avoid over-diagnosis of bacterial origin and unnecessary antibiotic prescription. The objectives of treatment are: the reduction of symptoms, reduce the contagious period, and prevent local suppurative and systemic complications. Ideally, only confirmed cases should receive antibiotics. If there is no possibility to perform a rapid antigen-detection test, or in some cases if the result is negative, it is recommended to perform a culture and, if there is high suspicious index, to prescribe antibiotics. Penicillin is the treatment of choice, although amoxicillin is also accepted as the first option. Amoxicillin/clavulanate is not indicated in any case as empirical treatment. Macrolides are not a first choice antibiotic, and should be reserved for those patients with immediate penicillin allergy reaction or for the treatment of streptococcal carriers. It is of primordial importance to adapt the prescribing of antibiotics to the scientific evidence.