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W Kościele starożytnym nie znano celibatu w sensie obowiązku zachowania bezżeństwa przez wyższych duchownych. Udzielano święceń mężczyznom żonatym, jak i dobrowolnie żyjącym w bezżeństwie. Istniała jednak praktyka zachowania całkowitej wstrzemięźliwości przez diakonów, prezbiterów i biskupów, po przyjęciu święceń. Do IV w. nie było norm prawa stanowionego przez Kościół na ten temat, co wynikało z surowych przepisów prawa rzymskiego, które wymierzone było w celibatariuszy. Chodziło o to, aby nie dawać pretekstu do prześladowania chrześcijan. Dopiero wprowadzenie przez Konstantyna Wielkiego w IV w. nowych zasad polityki religijnej zmieniło sytuację. Synod w Elwirze wprowadził najstarsze, stanowione prawo partykularne, dotyczące celibatu wstrzemięźliwości. Kolejne synody nakazywały duchownym wstrzemięźliwość, ze względu na pełnioną służbę Bożą, a za jej niezachowanie wprowadziły kary, w postaci utraty urzędu kościelnego. Synody zabraniały udzielania święceń mężczyznom drugi raz żonatym oraz tzw. małżeństw duchowych kleru z synezaktami. Sobór Nicejski I wprowadził prawo dla całego Kościoła. Nie tylko nakazał duchownym życie w doskonałej wstrzemięźliwości, ale też zakazał duchownym żonatym, zamieszkania z prawowitą żoną. Papieże z IV i V w., wydawali dekretały, nakazując duchownym zachowanie celibatu wstrzemięźliwości, a uzasadniali to sprawowaniem kultu Bożego. Również prawo rzymskie usankcjonowało istniejący w Kościele celibat wstrzemięźliwości.

While the share of people under age 65 without a cohabiting partner has been increasing in France since the late 1960s, the duration of these periods of solo living over the life course has never been studied. We calculate the aggregate length of time spent without a cohabiting partner for the cohorts born between 1926 and 1988 using data from the ERFI (2005) and EPIC (2013-2014) surveys, and use linear regressions to identify the factors behind the observed trends. These durations have evolved differently by gender and have shortened for women, who have benefited more than men from the decline in prolonged singlehood and early widowhood. For many years, social origin and educational level structured the length of time spent single, but their effects are progressively weakening. The first baby-boom cohorts (1945-1955) are an exception, having experienced the shortest periods without a cohabiting partner. The increasingly complex partnership trajectories of more recent cohorts thus correspond more to a shift in conjugal norms than to their rejection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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The author begins by stating the fact that the discourse on priestly celibacy and on the sense of its obligatoriness in the Catholic Church needs to at least try to answer some fundamental questions: Is celibacy a mere ecclesiastical, canonical-legal, disciplinary directive that was introduced in a given historical moment, or is its source something else or Someone else? What are the (non-) justifications on the basis of which the Magisterium continues »to insist« even today, despite all challenges and problems that the Church faces at the turn of the epoch, on the complete abstinence of her ministerial officials for the Kingdom of God, although it is theologically entirely clear that celibacy is not a constitutive element of the holy orders? According to the conciliar and postconciliar doctrine, the priestly celibacy has its source in three different areas: in the gift of the Holy Spirit – charisma, in the free and loving response of a candidate who takes upon himself the Gospel counsel through the act of public promise in the moment of receiving the holy order of deacon, and, finally, in the can. 277 of the Code of Canon Law, i.e., in canonical-legal institutionalisation related to the theological, spiritual, and pastoral appropriateness that the Church, led by the Holy Spirit, sees between celibacy and the holy orders, and which is also supported by that same Spirit in its execution. Therefore, celibacy concerns primarily the moral obligation that is established by the theological order, insofar as its source is the special relation between God who calls and the person who responds, and only secondarily is that relation »ratified« in the canonical-legal, disciplinary obligation that carries its own rights and duties. The Church continues to see celibacy as a kind of ecclesiastical dowry or privilege that is not absolute or unchangeable, but nevertheless wisely instituted, positively recognised, historically accredited, and, despite all challenges, experientially still credible. It is important not to separate celibacy from other Gospel counsels (poverty and obedience), virtues, and dimensions of priestly life. All these dimensions have to be in constant dialogue, while not leaving on the side the need for style and discernment in everyday life that demands much needed prudence – debita prudentia. In his fatherly figure, the diocesan bishop has to take care, primarily, of the formation of priestly candidates and a healthy selection of candidates for the holy orders, but he should also never lose sight of caring for the lives of his priests and be of help to them as they strive to fulfil their obligations by using all means that are available to him. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Problematyka podjęta w artykule dotyczy sakramentu święceń, a ściśle przygotowania do święceń według wymogów Kodeksu Prawa Kanonicznego z 1983 r. i nowego Ratio fundamentalis institutionis sacerdotalis, które zostało wydane w 2016 r. W pierwszej części artykułu zaprezentowano kanony odnoszące się do wymogów ważności święceń oraz ich godziwości. Druga część jest prezentacją norm zawartych w Ratio fundamentalis. W artykule przytoczono także inne, obowiązujące normy prawa, które są przejawem troski Kościoła o właściwą formację przyszłych kapłanów.

Niniejszy tekst jest jednym z głosów we współczesnej debacie na temat celibatu. Jego specyfiką jest próba prześledzenia rozwoju argumentacji teologicznej i personalistycznej zawartej w najważniejszych dokumentach Urzędu Nauczycielskiego Kościoła. Szczególny nacisk został położony na teksty współczesne, wydane już po Soborze Watykańskim II. To uwrażliwienie podyktowane jest dwoma zasadniczymi powodami. Po pierwsze, dokumenty posoborowe wprowadzają zupełnie nową jakość do argumentacji na temat powszechności celibatu. Po drugie, mają one o wiele większy wpływ na dzisiejszą dyscyplinę Kościoła niż teksty wcześniejsze.

Le « professeur femme » est inventé en 1881 par la toute jeune IIIe République dans le cadre d'une entreprise de large envergure visant à la laïcisation du système scolaire français. Soucieux de ne point nuire au succès d'une oeuvre si importante pour la stabilité du régime même, les républicains s'emploient à faire intégrer cet être « hermaphrodite » tenant autant du masculin que du féminin à la norme. Ainsi est façonnée une nouvelle identité féminine aussi paradoxale que complexe dans la mesure où elle concilie deux extrêmes : celui de la nonne laïque entièrement vouée à ses élèves et, par ailleurs, celui de la savante, usurpatrice d'une profession définie au masculin, indépendante certes, mais au prix du sacrifice de sa féminité. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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This article focuses on the division of religious labour according to both gender and marital situation, based on an ethnographic survey in a Pentecostal church with a mixed membership in Istanbul (Turkey). Following the description of religious labour throughout its six areas, this research shows that celibacy is made relatively invisible inside the church, where the emphasis is on conjugality and family, while the latter bonds are de-emphasised in the outside world, where singles are at the forefront. "Love" appears as a multifaceted reality, encompassing not only justifications but the very output of religious labour, inside and outside the faith community. Résumé: Cet article s' intéresse à la division du travail religieux selon le genre et la situation conjugale, à partir d' une enquête ethnographique menée dans une église pentecôtiste socialement "mixte" située à Istanbul (Turquie). À travers la description du travail religieux dans les six principales aires où il se déploie, cette recherche montre que le célibat est relativement invisibilisé au sein de l' église, où l' accent est mis sur la conjugalité et la famille, tandis que ces liens perdent en importance à l' extérieur de l' église, où les célibataires sont au premier plan. "L' amour" apparaît comme une réalité multiple, qui non seulement justifie les modalités du travail religieux, mais est aussi le produit de ce travail, à l' intérieur et vers l' extérieur de la communauté de foi. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article looks at the debate on clerical celibacy among Czech theologians during the Enlightenment. Drawing largely on their writings, which in many cases served as textbooks in the training of future priests and thus had a significant impact, it analyses the origins, arguments and course of the debate. Doubts about the future of celibacy first appeared in canon law in the 1770s, conditioned in part by secular factors such as populationism. In the late 1780s clerical celibacy was publicly challenged by influential university theologians such as the church historian Kaspar Royko in Prague and the theologian Josef Lauber in Olomouc, a former Jansenist. Their main argument was the widespread non-compliance by priests and its harmful social consequences. The law also had its defenders (e.g. Franz Christoph Pittroff), whose main argument was the traditional one of the need for purity in the Eucharist. During the 1790s the public controversy about celibacy disappeared; but for many years the discourse on the subject remained strongly influenced by Enlightenment thinking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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W Kościele starożytnym na początku celibat rozumiany jako bezżeństwo był dobrowolny. Bez ograniczeń święcono raz żonatych mężczyzn. Od połowy III w. zabraniano mężczyznom nieżonatym w chwili święceń zawierania małżeństwa po ich przyjęciu. Od IV w. powstało formalne prawo celibatu w sensie wymagania całkowitej wstrzemięźliwości seksualnej w relacjach z żoną. Te normy prawne potwierdzają liczne synody kościelne w Galii i przypominają o obowiązku ich przestrzegania. Celibat wstrzemięźliwości jest motywowany głównie wstrzemięźliwością kultową a także nauczaniem ewangelicznym i św. Pawła Apostoła. Za nieprzestrzeganie tych norm grożą różne kary kościelne, jakimi najczęściej są złożenie z urzędu i pozbawienie komunii.

The presence of studies that portray rural women who escape social expectations, question the reproduction of gender relations in rural communities and deny the submissive roles that women of previous generations played as a result of marriage is still incipient within the Social Sciences' literature. Thus, the present article aimed to investigate rural women's life histories by analysing them through the sociological categories of deviation and stigma, intending, as a result, to show these women´s different forms of existence and resistance to patriarchal values. Ten single rural women, over 40 years old, from four states in the Northeast region were interviewed. We identified the recurrent use of pejorative terms to refer to single women. We also observed that despite the remaining presence of a conservative lifestyle in rural areas, the women interviewed were able to resignify their condition, exalting their freedom and showing satisfaction for not building a family that fits the hegemonic mold. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Malika Mokeddem s’inscrit dans la lignée d’écrivaines francophones qui traitent dans leurs textes de la situation socio-politique et culturelle de la femme en Algérie, mais aussi de l’entre-deux dans lequel se situent les femmes migrantes. On ne peut s’empêcher de noter que, sur les dix romans publiés jusqu'à date, aucune de ses héroïnes ne connait la sérénité dans le couple et elles rejettent toutes la maternité. Nous nous interrogerons donc, dans cet article sur les raisons de ces manques, afin de voir si on peut y lire plutôt une affirmation absolue de la liberté de la femme que des échecs. En outre, nous ferons un survol de l’évolution des narratrices de Mokeddem jusqu’à son roman le plus récent, La Désirante (2011), qui met en scène un nouveau type de rapport entre femme, homme aimé, argent et besoin de liberté.

The main purpose of this article is to present the relationship between homosexuality and the priesthood in the Catholic Church over the centuries. The analysis reveals that the phenomenon of homosexuality splits more and more the Christian world. For two millennia in the Catholic Church there was not a formal prohibition of priestly ordination for gay people. The real revolution in this matter took place in November 2005 when Instruction Concerning the Criteria for the Discernment of Vocations with regard to Persons with Homosexual Tendencies in view of their Admission to the Seminary and to Holy Orders was published in Rome by the Congregation for Catholic Education. According to this document, the Church cannot admit to the seminary or to Holy Orders those who practice homosexuality, present deep-seated homosexual tendencies or support the so-called „gay culture". Deep-seated homosexual tendencies, which are found in a number of men and women, are also objectively disordered and, for those same people, often constitute a trial. Such persons, in fact, find themselves in a situation that gravely hinders them from relating correctly to men and women. One must in no way overlook the negative consequences that can derive from the ordination of persons with deep-seated homosexual tendencies. The crucial question for Catholics, that has rather the ontological character than moral, concerns the vision of the priest who acts in the person of Christ (in persona Christi). The understanding of the essential elements of the conformity of the Catholic priest to Christ seems to be crucial for the correct interpretation of the relationship between homosexuality and the priesthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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W niniejszym artykule autor używa elementów analizy socjoretorycznej dla odczytania znaczenia fragmentu 1 Kor 7,12-16. Zaczyna od przebadania kompozycji retorycznej, w której wyróżnia tezę (w. 1-2) oraz dwa bloki argumentacyjne, w. 3-16 i w. 25-40, rozdzielone retoryczną "digressio" w w. 17-25. W dalszej kolejności analizie socjokulturowej poddana zostaje Pawłowa argumentacja na temat „małżeństw mieszanych” w 1 Kor 7,12-16. Szczególna uwaga zostaje tu zwrócona na kwestię adresatów (kogo ma na myśli Paweł, mówiąc o „małżeństwach mieszanych”), ideę uświęcenia oraz dopuszczalność rozwodów w tego typu związkach. Ostatnim etapem analizy tekstu jest odczytanie znaczenia pokoju, o którym mówi Paweł w 1 Kor 7,15c. Według autora należy go rozumieć jako synonim zbawienia.

This article explores Muslim attitudes towards asceticism in the second/eighth and third/ninth centuries by examining the famous Prophetic hadith: "Every community has its monasticism, and the monasticism of my community is ǧihād." The hadith serves as a lens for assessing several broader phenomena, including early Muslim views of Christian monasticism, the rejection of celibacy in Islamic culture, and the promotion of a new code of sexual ethics in the post-conquest Middle East-what this article terms the "second sexual revolution of Late Antiquity." It concludes by presenting several accounts of Christian monks who converted to Islam and joined the ǧihād, as well as Muslim soldiers who converted to Christianity and became monks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The issue of celibacy obligations for clerics according to the Code of Canon Law of 1983 was taken up in the article. This problem contains the following items: 1) theological and legal basis for the celibacy obligation; 2) celibacy obligation in the Code of Canon Law of 1983; 3) celibacy in selected documents issued after the Code of Canon Law of 1983; 4) conclusion. Legislator in can. 277, binding the clerics to celibacy, indicates the source of this obligation, what is the candidate’s own will to the orders. According to the can. 277, celibacy means chastity sensu stricto (in a perfect way). Canon Law regulation concerning celibacy law has a long Church tradition. When cleric does not obey this obligation, penal sanctions are applied. Celibacy which is voluntarily accepted and experienced in a proper way is a spiritual reality sign, contributes to the salvation of souls which is the supreme law in the Church.

In the late 5th century, disciplinary practices of the Assyrian Church of the East saw an unprecedented change in the scope of marriages of priests and those serving the God. Synods in Saliq in 486 and 497 agreed not only to consecrate married men but also to allow already consecrated priests and bishops to get mar­ried. The synods lifted restrictions on successive bigamy (marriages of widows and widowers) as well. Abstinence as such was limited and priests were allowed to maintain contacts with their wives and have children. This was the key issue for bishops participating in the debate although history remembered the assem­blies as proclaiming the Nestorian confession of faith. The matter of adaptation to standards of the Persian society was very pressing, with both resolutions and the course of the debate showing clear intervention of Persian sovereigns. Adopted arrangements remained binding to a greater or lesser extent for over half a century and although they did not introduce any permanent change in the Church disci­pline, they represent an interesting example of an attempt to adjust the canon law to the social context of the life of Christians in the Persian Empire.

Članak promišlja o uvijek gorućemu pitanju celibata u krizama današnje Crkve. U prvomu dijelu pokušava se teološki opravdati celibat kao prikladnije sredstvo ostvarenja svećeničkoga poziva od bračnoga života. Navode se posebno crkveni oci, koji svi jednoglasno promatraju celibat savršenijim staležom od bračnoga, pri čemu to ne znači da netko postaje samim tim savršeniji, ukoliko pripada celibatu. U drugomu dijelu ukratko se predstavlja današnja situacija Crkve, krize u Crkve koje pogađaju i sam celibat. Premda se i dalje tvrdi da je celibat prikladnije sredstvo za ostvarenje svećeničkoga poziva, Crkva bi mogla promisliti ima li postojeća obveza celibata za svećeništvo još smisla, ako li se celibat shvaća kao isključivi izričaj moći, oholosti ili kao sigurno utočište za homoseksualne osobe. No, unatoč navedenim krizama članak se ipak shvaća kao svojevrsni pledoaje za svećenički celibat, koji i danas može biti i jest „jasniji znak“ kraljevstva Božjega.

Vycházeje z aktuální situace v oblasti feminizace na rakouských školách, bude v historické studii zahrnující časové rozmezí od r. 1870 do konce první světové války načrtnuta dlouhá cesta učitelek k rovnoprávnosti a uznání, jak ji lze sledovat v historických odborných pedagogických časopisech. Kořeny feminizace, především v oblasti primární školy, sahají hluboko do 19. století (tehdy školy obecné – Volksschule). Přes veškeré překážky ze strany mužských kolegů a obtížné pracovní podmínky bylo až do roku 1896, kdy byly dívky/ženy poprvé připuštěny ke složení maturity, povolání „učitelky“ jedinou možností, jak mohly dosáhnout uznávaného vzdělání, které přesahovalo rámec povinné školní docházky. Během krátké doby tudíž vzdělávací ústavy „vyprodukovaly“ nadbytek učitelek, které se často musely jako soukromé učitelky za „skývu chleba“ tvrdě protloukat životem. Dnešní vysoká míra feminizace, jejímž důsledkem je nedostatek mužů na rakouských primárních školách, oslabuje především u chlapců možnost setkávat se s příklady mužských rolových vzorů; chlapci tak v dětském věku nenacházejí modely chování příslušníků stejného pohlaví, se kterými by se mohli identifikovat; zdá se, že chlapci s migračním pozadím – speciálně z jiných kulturních kruhů – jsou tím obzvláště postiženi. Argumentace podložené teorií genderu ukazují na rozmanitost důvodů, proč v učitelském povolání vládne feminizace a proč jen málo mužů volí studium učitelství pro primární školu. Mnohé jevy, se kterými se v nejnovějších studiích setkáváme (obsazování vedoucích míst, aspekty pracovní psychologie…), nacházíme již v pojednáních z let na přelomu mezi 19. a 20. stoletím.

This article represents an attempt to expound the meaning of 33rd canon of the Council of Elvira (circa 306 A.D.), based on historical and grammatical criteria, in reference to doubts related to the linguistic understanding of the text. The author argues that the traditional interpretation of the canon as a prescription prohibiting those who have received major orders (i.e. deacons, presbyters and bishops) ha­ving marital relationship is justified (as opposed to authors who agree with the opinion presented by Maurice Meigne). This, in turn, recognises the authenticity of the text as an integral part of the entire collection of the canons of the Council of Elvira. This paper, while presenting a version of the translation of the canon, proposes also some modifications on punctuation marks, which allows the extrac­tion of the full meaning of the text.

The present article is an analysis of 1 Corinthians 7:1-40. It presents the relevance of the choice of one’s way of life, either in marriage or in celibacy. Considering the passing away of this life, St. Paul showed the Corinthians the value of virginity as a testimony of the Kingdom of God. According to the apostle, this particular form of life is the best preparation for the eternal life. It enables a person to completely devote his/her life to the preaching of the Kingdom. St. Paul chose this way of living in order to commit himself to the proclamation of the Gospel. Celibacy freed him from all concerns related to the providing for the family. The teachings comprised in the analyzed text are particularly relevant for Christians living in the early twenty-first century. 1 Cor 7: 29-31 is utterly opposed to the models of life preferred in the contemporary world. In light of this utterance, it is worth asking where we can be led by this world that has chosen a completely different way of living. It is no wonder that modern man is not able to understand the value of virginity and celibacy which are a call to conversion and a sign of the Kingdom that will be opposed.