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Background Motivational interviewing is hypothesized to operate by enhancing a client's internal motivation to change. Past research operationalizes this process by measuring in-session statements for change (i.e., change talk), yet relationships between change talk and other measures of motivation have yet to be substantiated. This study tested whether in-session change talk predicted subsequent reports of commitment to abstain or moderate drinking assessed via ecological momentary assessment (EMA), and explored each of their contributions to drinking outcomes. Method Secondary data analysis was performed on data from 48 study participants who received therapy within a randomized controlled trial testing mechanisms of actions of MI. Multilevel models were used to test whether in-session commitment statements (strength, frequency, and slope of strength) made in two therapy sessions predicted subsequent daily reports of commitment to abstain or not drink heavily and drinking (21 days of data) in the weeks following each respective session. Results A weak, negative relationship between in-session commitment and average daily commitment to abstain emerged. No relationship between in-session statements and average daily commitment to not drink heavily emerged. Only EMA commitment predicted drinking outcome. Post hoc analyses demonstrate a moderating impact of EMA commitment to abstain on in-session commitment strength: low pre-treatment commitment to abstain and increasing commitment strength across a session yielded the greatest drink reduction. Conclusion In-session change talk and EMA commitment may represent distinct aspects of motivation, yet their interaction appears important to treatment prognoses. Commitment to abstain may be important for treatment selection and successful drink reduction.

Research suggests that mothers may play a role in girls’ body image development. The “interactive” hypothesis specifies that qualities of the mother–daughter relationship, as opposed to maternal modeling alone, predict daughter’s body image. We sought to understand how maternal relationship quality, from the perception of both daughters and mothers, was associated with preadolescent girls’ body image. The relationship between mother–daughter relationship quality and daughters’ body image was examined in 152 girls (ages 8–12) and their mothers. Mothers and daughters primarily identified as non-Hispanic white or Hispanic. Hierarchical linear regression analyses indicated that daughters’ perception of mother–daughter relationship quality was associated with daughters’ body esteem and body dissatisfaction, adding a small, but significant, amount of variance above the larger effect of child z-BMI and age. In contrast, maternal perception of mother–daughter relationship quality was not associated with any child body image measures. Young girls who perceived their relationships with their mothers more positively had healthier body images. Although effect sizes were relatively small and the cross-sectional design precludes conclusions regarding causality, these results support the “interactive” model of body image development whereby the characteristics of the mother–daughter relationship (as perceived by the daughter) are related to body image. Our findings support the notion that daughters’ perceptions of strong mother–daughter relationships are associated with healthy child body image, and fall in line with family-based prevention efforts that attempt to enhance parent–child relationships.

The psycholinguistic analysis of client– counselor interactions indicates that how individuals talk about their substance use is associated with treatment outcome. However, the processes by which client speech influences out-of-session behaviors have not been clearly delineated. This study investigated the relationships between deriving relations–a key behavioral process by which language and cognition may come to influence behavior, shifts in the strength of client talk in favor of change, and treatment outcome among 75 cocaine-dependent participants (23% Female). Participants were trained to relate cocaine words, nonsense syllables, and negative-consequence words and were then assessed for a derived relation of equivalence before starting treatment. The DARN-C coding system was used to quantify the strength of participant speech during an early cognitive behavior therapy counseling session. Cocaine use during treatment was the outcome of interest. The analyses (a) characterized the process of deriving relations among individuals seeking help for their misuse of cocaine, (b) tested the relationships between shifts in the strength of participants’ speech in favor of change and treatment outcome, and (c) tested if deriving equivalence relations moderated the relationship between shifts in the strength of in-session speech and treatment response. Results indicated that a minority of participants derived equivalence relations, however increases in the strength of commitment language predicted less cocaine use during treatment only among those who did. The findings suggest deriving relations may be an important process by which changes in the strength of commitment language comes to influence substance use.

The objective of this study was to investigate the relation between self-report and objective assessment of Motivational Interviewing (MI) skills following training and supervision. After an MI workshop, 96 clinicians from 26 community programs (age 21–68, 65% female, 40.8% Black, 29.6% Caucasian, 24.5% Hispanic, 2.0% Asian, 3.1% other) were randomized to supervision (tele-conferencing or tape-based), or workshop only. At four time points, trainees completed a self-report of MI skill, using items from the MI Understanding questionnaire (MIU), and were objectively assessed by raters using the Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity (MITI) system. Correlations were calculated between MIU and MITI scores. A generalized linear mixed model was tested on MIU scores, with MITI scores, supervision condition and time as independent variables. MIU scores increased from pre-workshop (Mean = 4.74, SD = 1.79) to post-workshop (Mean = 6.31, SD = 1.03) (t = 8.69, p < .0001). With supervision, scores continued to increase, from post-workshop to week 8 (Mean = 7.07, SD = 0.91, t = 5.60, p < .0001) and from week 8 to week 20 (Mean = 7.28, SD = 0.94, t = 2.43, p = .02). However, MIU scores did not significantly correlate with MITI scores, with or without supervision. Self- reported ability increased with supervision, but self-report was not an indicator of objectively measured skill. This suggests that training does not increase correspondence between self-report and objective assessment, so community treatment programs should not rely on clinician self- report to assess the need for ongoing training and supervision and it may be necessary to train clinicians to accurately assess their own skill.

Motivational Interviewing (MI) is an evidence-based practice shown to be effective when working with people in treatment for substance use disorders. However, MI is a complex treatment modality optimized by training with feedback. Feedback, assessment and monitoring of treatment fidelity require measurement, which is typically done using audiotaped sessions. The gold standard for such measurement of MI skill has been an audiotaped interview, scored by a rater with a detailed structured instrument such as the Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity 2.0 (MITI 2.0) Coding System (Moyers, et al., 2005). The Helpful Responses Questionnaire (HRQ) (Miller, Hedrick, & Orlofsky, 1991) is a pen-and-paper test of empathy (a foundational MI skill) that does not require an audiotaped session. A randomized trial of three different regimens for training counselors in MI (live supervision using Teleconferencing, Tape-based supervision and Workshop only) (Smith et al., 2012) offered the opportunity to evaluate the performance of the HRQ as a measure of MI ability, compared to the several MITI 2.0 global scores and subscales. Participants were counselors (N = 97) working at community-based substance use treatment programs, whose MI proficiency was measured at four time points: baseline (before an initial 2-day MI workshop), post-workshop, 8 weeks post-workshop (i.e., post-supervision), and 20 weeks post-workshop with both MITI 2.0 and HRQ. HRQ total scores correlated significantly with the Reflection to Question Ratio from the MITI 2.0 at post-workshop (r = 0.33), week 8 (r = 0.34), and week 20 (r = 0.38), and with the Spirit (r = 0.32) and Empathy (r = 0.32) global scores at week 20. Correlations of HRQ with other MITI 2.0 subscales and time points after workshop were small and not significant. As predicted, HRQ scores differed between training conditions (X2(2) = 7.88, p = 0.02), with counselors assigned to live supervision achieving better HRQ scores than those in Workshop only. In summary, HRQ is a modestly accurate measure, mainly of the Reflection to Question Ratio, considered a core marker of MI skill. It is sensitive to training effects and may help identify counselors needing more intensive supervision. Given its ease of administration and scoring, HRQ may be a useful marker of MI skill during training efforts.

Motivational Interviewing (MI) is an effective treatment for substance use disorders (SUD) that focuses on resolving ambivalence and increasing commitment to positive behavior change. While MI has a well developed clinical theory, research findings have been mixed in supporting its view of how change occurs. The primary aim of this pilot study was to test hypothesized MI active ingredients and mechanisms of change in reducing drinking during the initiation of a behavior change episode. Problem drinkers (N=89) seeking treatment were randomly assigned to MI, relational MI without directive elements (Spirit-Only MI, SOMI), or a self-change (SC) control condition. Participants were followed during an eight week treatment period. The first two of four treatment sessions were videotaped and coded for fidelity, discriminability, and change talk. Overall, conditions demonstrated high fidelity. As predicted, change talk significantly increased in MI relative to the SOMI condition. Drinking was significantly reduced at end treatment, but the reduction was equivalent across conditions. Post-hoc analyses found that MI reduced drinking more rapidly than SOMI and SC and that increased change talk mediated the effects of MI relative to SOMI during the week immediately following the first session. Findings are discussed in the context of the pilot nature of the study and the relative absence of experimental tests of mechanisms of behavior change in SUD treatment research.

Objective The relationships between the occupational, educational, and verbal-cognitive characteristics of health care professionals and their motivational interviewing (MI) skills before, during, and after training were investigated. Method Fifty-eight community-based addiction clinicians (M = 42.1 years, SD = 10.0; 66% Female) were assessed prior to enrolling in a 2-day MI training workshop and being randomized to one of three post-workshop supervision programs: live supervision via tele-conferencing (TCS), standard tape-based supervision (Tape), or workshop training alone. Audiotaped sessions with clients were rated for MI skillfulness with the Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity (MITI) coding system v 2.0 at pre-workshop and 1, 8, and 20 weeks post-workshop. Correlation coefficients and generalized linear models were used to test the relationships between clinician characteristics and MI skill at each assessment point. Results Baseline MI skill levels were the most robust predictors of pre- and post-supervision performances. Clinician characteristics were associated with MI Spirit and reflective listening skill throughout training and moderated the effect of post-workshop supervision method on MI skill. TCS, which provided immediate feedback during practice sessions, was most effective for increasing MI Spirit and reflective listening among clinicians with no graduate degree and stronger vocabulary performances. Tape supervision was more effective for increasing these skills among clinicians with a graduate degree. Further, TCS and Tape were most likely to enhance MI Spirit among clinicians with low average to average verbal and abstract reasoning performances. Conclusions Clinician attributes influence the effectiveness of methods used to promote the acquisition of evidence-based practices among community-based practitioners.

The dissemination of new, evidence-based treatment methods into widespread clinical practice is a substantial challenge for the medical and mental health fields generally, and addiction treatment in particular (Institute of Medicine, 1998). Continuing education programs have traditionally used printed materials and didactic conferences for disseminating treatment advances. However, evidence suggests that these traditional approaches to training are relatively ineffective at changing actual medical or counseling practices. Training procedures that include interactive role-plays relevant to the clinical context allow opportunities for further practice, and provide feedback and reminders are more likely to enhance clinical skills in medical settings (Grol, 2001; Grol & Grimshaw, 2003). Similarly, Motivational interviewing (MI) workshop training procedures that include practice and feedback have been shown to increase the MI skill levels of counselors (Madison, Loignon, & Lane, 2009; Walters, Matson, Baer, & Ziedonis, 2005). Unfortunately, skill levels have been demonstrated to diminish after workshop training, indicating workshop training alone does not produce sustained improvement in MI skillfulness (Baer et al., 2004; Miller & Mount, 2001; Walters et al., 2005). Further, following workshop training, counselors tend to rate their MI proficiency more positively than their objectively assessed skill ratings (Miller & Mount, 2001). These findings suggest that training workshops may successfully expose clinicians to new treatment approaches and increase their confidence in the use of these techniques, but may not promote long-term proficiency, an important outcome that has direct implications for improving clinical practice. Thus, alternative training methods are needed to facilitate a more robust transfer of new treatment strategies to the clinical context. Accordingly, studies have begun to examine supervision offered after workshop training (Miller, Yahne, Moyers, Martinez, & Pirritano, 2004; Moyers et al., 2008; Martino, Ball, et al., 2011), and generally support the conclusion that methods involving objective feedback and coaching will improve acquisition of MI skill (Miller & Rose, 2009). The importance of approximating a counselor's clinical context during MI training has been emphasized (Miller & Rollnick, 2002), and the evidence suggests that feedback should be based on ratings of actual therapy sessions (Miller et al., 2004; Miller & Rose, 2009). This has generally been achieved through audiotaping of clinical encounters, which provides a direct window into a clinician's counseling style, and facilitates remote supervision, an important feature for disseminating empirically based treatment strategies when time and distance limit the availability of expert trainers. However, audiotaping also has disadvantages including limited adherence and tape selection issues such as counselors may not make tapes, or may select sessions that went relatively well, limiting the ability to address problems with skill (Miller et al., 2004). Further, the use of audio recordings entails a delay between the clinical encounter and the provision of feedback to the counselor; the tape must be mailed and then reviewed by the supervisor before discussion and feedback can take place. This misses the opportunity for immediate feedback, a potentially powerful intervention for helping individuals learn new behavioral skills (Balcazar, Hopkins, & Suarez, 1986). Independent lines of evidence highlight three training parameters that may be particularly useful for guiding the learning of new counseling skills. First, immediate feedback is an important component in training programs that aim to bring behaviors to a particular performance level (Balcazar et al., 1986). Thus, supervisory practices that provide feedback to counselors closer in time to their clinical encounter may help promote the acquisition and retention of new counseling skills (Kivlighan, Angelone, & Swafford, 1991). Second, practice sessions distributed over time are more likely to produce lasting skill acquisition than training sessions of a longer duration but conducted over a shorter period of time (e.g., workshop training) (Donovan & Radosevich, 1999; Prescott et al., 2002). Third, differential reinforcement of specific behaviors from amongst a larger repertoire can be particularly effective at shaping new skills (Skinner, 1953). Differential reinforcement procedures may be particularly effective for developing proficiency in specific MI skills, while simultaneously reducing the use of counseling strategies that are incompatible with an MI style. Reducing the frequency of MI non-adherent (MINA) behaviors is of particular importance, since evidence suggests that therapist MINA behavior can increase client resistance and negatively influence treatment outcomes (Apodoca & Longabaugh, 2009; Guame, Bertholet, Faouzi, Gmel, & Daeppen, 2010; Guame, Gmel, Faouzi, & Daeppen, 2009; Miller, Benefield, & Tonigan, 1993; Moyers & Martin, 2006). Tele-conferencing supervision (TCS) was designed to address the limitations of workshop training and post-workshop supervision based on recordings of clinical encounters, by incorporating the principles of immediate feedback, distributed practice, and differential reinforcement. TCS provides real-time, live feedback to counselors while they interview standardized clients (actors) in their treatment clinics. Supervisors, located remotely, listen to the interview through telephone lines and provide immediate feedback and modeling through an earpiece worn by the clinician. TCS was constructed, tested, and then adjusted based on the favorable results of an uncontrolled pilot study (Smith et al., 2007). The present study employed a randomized controlled trial to test the efficacy of workshop training plus TCS for training clinicians in MI, compared to two control conditions, workshop training followed by tape review supervision (Tape), and workshop training only (Workshop).

Objectives: Despite their popularity, little is known about what distinguishes effective from ineffective or even iatrogenic adolescent group interventions. Methods: Audio recordings and transcripts from 19, 8—10 session, school-based treatment groups comprised of 108, substance abusing 10- to 19-year olds were analyzed. Group leader empathy was measured globally, while two new constructs, group commitment and peer response, were measured using discourse analysis. All variables were measured at the group level. Results: Associations among these process variables were tested and supported, as were the hypothesized associations between both group member language constructs and marijuana use outcomes. Conclusions: These findings were consistent with a proposed theoretical model in which group commitment and peer response predict marijuana use outcomes and mediate the effects of group leader empathy. These observable, in-session, verbal behaviors could distinguish whether adolescents in a group intervention will decrease, maintain, or possibly increase the targeted behavior and are likely influenced by group leader empathy.

We present a critical examination of phonological effects in a picture–word interference task. Using a methodology minimizing stimulus repetition, English/Spanish and Spanish/English bilinguals named pictures in either L1 or L2 (blocked contexts) or in both (mixed contexts) while ignoring word distractors in L1 or L2. Distractors were either phonologically related to the picture name (direct; FISH–fist), or related through translation to the picture name (TT; LEG–milk–leche), or they were unrelated (bear–peach). Results demonstrate robust activation of phonological representations by translation equivalents of word distractors. Although both direct and TT distractors facilitated naming, TT facilitation was more consistent in L2 naming and under mixed contexts.

Because alcohol use plays a major role in many injuries that require hospital care, there is increasing interest in developing interventions to address alcohol problems among emergency department and trauma center patients. The aim of the current study was to extend past research on brief interventions by investigating the use of a self-help manual to treat problem drinkers in a hospital trauma center. Forty injured patients who were either intoxicated at the time of injury or screened positive for harmful drinking were randomly assigned to receive either a brief assessment and a self-help booklet with no more than 5 minutes clinician contact (bibliotherapy) or brief assessment only. Follow-up data obtained five months after hospital discharge indicated that patients in both conditions made significant reductions in drinking and associated negative consequences. There was a trend toward further treatment-seeking among those in the bibliotherapy condition (40% versus 13%). Results suggest that the provisio...

Two cultivars of Matthiola incana (L.) R. Br. (`Cheerful White' and `Frolic Carmine') were grown in greenhouse sand cultures to determine the effect of salt stress on growth, ion relations, and flower quality. Two types of irrigation waters, differing in ion composition, were prepared to simulate saline wastewaters commonly present in two inland valley locations in California. Solution ICV was typical of saline tailwaters frequently found in the Imperial and Coachella Valleys and contained Cl–, Na+, SO42–, Mg2+, Ca2+, predominating in that order. Solution SJV was dominated by Na+ and SO42– and simulated saline drainage effluents often present in the San Joaquin Valley. Five treatments of each salinity type were imposed; each was replicated three times. Electrical conductivities of the irrigation waters (ECi) were 2.5, 5, 8, 11, and 14 dS·m–1. Plant heights were determined weekly. Seedlings were sampled for ion analysis 9 weeks after planting. Flowering stems were harvested when about 50% of the florets in the inflorescence were open. Total stem length, weight and diameter, numbers of florets and buds, and inflorescence length were measured at final harvest. All plants remained healthy throughout the experimental period with no visible signs of ion toxicity or deficiency. Although length of the flowering stems decreased with increasing salinity, stems were of marketable quality even at the highest salinity level. Mineral ion composition of the vegetative tissues generally reflected ion concentrations in the irrigation waters. Shoot Mg2+ and Cl– were higher and shoot Na+ lower in seedlings irrigated with ICV waters than with SJV waters. Shoot P was reduced over control levels once salinity exceeded 11 dS·m–1. Both cultivars were highly selective for K+ over Na + and selectivity coefficients (SK, Na) increase about 60% as salinity increased from 2.5 to 14 dS·m–1. This study illustrates that commercially acceptable cut flowers of stock may be produced under irrigation with moderately saline wastewaters.

A psycholinguistic account of motivational interviewing (MI) is proposed. Critical to this view is the assumption that therapists and clients are natural language users engaged in a constructive conversation that reveals and augments relevant information about the status of future change in a client’s substance abuse. The role of client speech acts—most notably, verbal commitments—during MI is highlighted. How commitments can be signaled in client speech or gestures is discussed. How these commitment signals can inform therapeutic process and subsequent behavioral outcome is then put forth. Using natural language as a measure, a MI process model is presented that not only posits a mediational role for client commitment in relating underlying factors of desire, ability (self-efficacy), need, and reasons to behavior, but also a pivotal role as a need-satisfying enabler of a social-cognitive mechanism for personal change.

Bioaccumulation of selenium (Se) in wetlands and evaporation ponds has created serious hazards to fish and waterfowl in the western United States. Agricultural drainage water is the main source for Se contamination in this region. Treatment technologies currently being evaluated to reduce the Se load in agricultural drainage water include physical, chemical and biological methods. This article focuses on ion-exchange, reverse osmosis, solar ponds, chemical reduction with iron, microalgal-bacterial treatment, volatilization, biological precipitation, and flow-through wetlands to remove Se in water. Advantages and disadvantages of each technology are evaluated and assessed in terms of cost-effectiveness and practical applications in dealing with large volumes of drainage water. With intense research in treatment technologies, it is feasible that a combination of biological, chemical and physical techniques may be employed in the development of a cost-effective strategy to treat agricultural drainage water.

Client language from a motivational interview (MI) and drug use outcome were investigated. Interview videotapes of 84 drug abusers were coded for frequency and strength of utterances expressing commitment, desire, ability, need, readiness, and reasons to change or maintain their habit. Cluster analysis of proportion days abstinent (PDA) revealed 3 groups: high PDA at intake and follow-up (3, 6, 9, 12 months; maintainers); low intake PDA/high follow-up PDA (changers); and low intake PDA/low to moderate follow-up PDA (stragglers). Distinct group patterns emerged for commitment strength (CS) during MI. Clients dishonest in checklist self-report exhibited CS similar to stragglers. CS for client evaluation of a change plan predicted outcome PDA. CS was predicted by strength of desire, ability, need, and reasons, but more strongly predicted outcome PDA, suggesting CS is a pathway for their influence on behavior.

Constructed evaporation ponds are being utilized for disposalof saline subsurface drainage waters in San Joaquin Valley,California. These terminal evaporation ponds are located inhydrologically closed basins and/or regions with no surfacedrainage out of the valley. The saline drainwaters disposedinto the ponds are sodium-sulfate or sodium-sulfate-chloridetype waters and upon desiccation produces mirabilite andhalite. The drainwaters contain excessive levels of traceelements from geochemical origins. The trace element of mostconcern, is selenium because it bioaccumulates in the aquaticfood chain and causes death and deformity of waterbirdsattracted to the pond environment. At the present, the onlyeconomic drainwater disposal option in the southern. portionof the valley is evaporation ponds. The operation of theseponds is heavily regulated by waste discharge requirements toreduce and mitigate wildlife impacts. A case study onevaporation ponds and bird usage from a drainage districtillustrates the extensive monitoring and mitigation required.The prognosis is evaporation basins will be needed for theforeseeable future unless breakthroughs occur in economic andeffective drainwater treatment and drainwater reuseoptions.

In 4 experiments, symbolic comparisons were investigated to test semantic-memory retrieval accounts espousing processing advantages for picture over word stimuli. In Experiment 1, participants judged pairs of animal names or pictures by responding to questions probing concrete or abstract attributes (texture or size, ferocity or intelligence). Per pair, attributes were salient or nonsalient concerning their prerated relevance to animals being compared. Distance (near or far) between attribute magnitudes was also varied. Pictures did not significantly speed responding relative to words across all other variables. Advantages were found for far attribute magnitudes (i.e., the distance effect) and salient attributes. The distance effect was much less for salient than nonsalient concrete-attribute comparisons. These results were consistently found in additional experiments with increased statistical power to detect modality effects. Our findings argue against dual-coding and some common-code accounts of conceptual attribute processing, urging reexamination of the assumption that pictures confer privileged access to long-term knowledge.

Irrigation with blended drainage water can damage soil structure, impair infiltration, and increase runoff and erosion. This loss of permeability is often attributed to the slaking of aggregrates and clay dispersion, which leads to pore plugging. Soil swelling is usually considered an important factor only when exchangeable sodium percentages (ESP) exceed 15%. We hypothesized that swelling is more important than generally recognized in reducing soil hydraulic conductivity (HC), and swelling can occur at low ESP. In this study we attempted to identify the mechanisms reducing HC and the reversibility of the processes during gypsum and sulfuric acid application. Synthetic drainage waters with sodium adsorption ratios (SAR) of 1, 3, 5, and 8 and electrolyte concentrations (C) of 0, 2.5, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 mmol c L were leached through machine-packed soil columns to evaluate the effects of clay dispersion and swelling on HC. Following the initial leachings, the soils were amended with surface applied gypsum and H 2 SO 4 , and leached with deionized water. Clay concentration in the leachate was used as a measure of clay dispersion, and internal soil swelling was assumed to be proportional to changes in the water holding capacity at -22 kPa tension. Internal soil swelling at low electrolyte concentrations (

The reaction of SeF6 with Fe and Fe oxide surfaces is investigated as a model of the reduction of aqueous selenate. Polycrystalline iron foils were reacted with gaseous SeF6 in vacuum and then characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. A novel use of electron stimulated desorption was used to determine if any SeF bonds remain following reaction. It was found that SeF6 completely dissociates, growing a film of FeF2. The growth initially follows Mott–Cabrera kinetics, but then abruptly stops. Thin Fe oxide layers on the surface impede the adsorption of SeF6. It is suggested that the fluoride and oxide films both quench the reaction by inhibiting the transport of electrons that are needed to dissociate SeF6 at the surface.

Irrigation drainage and industrial wastewaters often contain elevated levels of toxic oxyanions and oxycations such as selenate, chromate, and uranyl. A potential remediation method is to react contaminated water with zero-valent iron, which transforms the mobile contaminants into immobile forms. In this work, iron foil was exposed to aqueous solutions containing the relevant ions, and the reacted surfaces were characterized by scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). STM images collected in situ show that the protrusions on the foil surface associated with iron oxides are smoothed out by the reaction. XPS indicates that partially reduced Se(IV) and Cr(III) are adsorbed on the surface, while uranium is deposited as U(VI), i.e., without reduction. More Se and Cr are deposited when the atmospheric gases are removed from solution because of the elimination of a competing process in which dissolved O2 increases the thickness of the iron oxide overlayer to the point where...

Previous evidence indicates that bilinguals are slowed when an unexpected language switch occurs when they are reading aloud. This anticipation effect was investigated using a picture-word translation task to compare English monolinguals and Spanish-English bilinguals functioning in “monolingual mode.” Monolinguals and half of the bilinguals drew pictures or wrote English words for picture or English word stimuli; the remaining bilinguals drew pictures or wrote Spanish words for picture or Spanish word stimuli. Production onset latency was longer in cross-modality translation than within-modality copying, and the increments were equivalent between groups across stimulus and production modalities. Assessed within participants, bilinguals were slower than monolinguals under intermixed but not under blocked trial conditions. Results indicate that the bilingual anticipation effect is not specific to language-mixing tasks. More generally, stimulus-processing uncertainty prevents establishment of a “base” symbolic-system procedure (concerning recognition, production, and intervening translation) and the inhibition of others. When this uncertainty is removed, bilinguals exhibit functional equivalence to monolinguals.

The authors investigated the relation of locus of control (LOC) to age differences in free-recall memory performance. Older and younger participants completed P. C. Duttweiler's (1984) Internal Control Index (ICI) and subsequently performed free-recall memory tasks. Compared with the younger participants, the older participants exhibited poorer recall with more intrusions and uncorrected repetition errors as well as reduced categorical clustering. For the older participants with less internal LOC, recall proportion and item-pair associative recall clustering were lower than for the older participants with more internal LOC. By contrast, the younger participants did not exhibit any LOC effects in their recall performance. The results suggest that a differential memory organization deficit may underlie the age differences in free recall among individuals varying in LOC when they are performing an intentional learning task. This deficit is discussed in terms of a reduced-inhibition account of cognitive aging.

Elevated concentrations of U are found in agricultural drainage waters from the San Joaquin Valley, CA, which are often disposed of in evaporation basins that are frequented by waterfowl. To determine the factors that affect aqueous U concentrations in the basins, sorption experiments with U(VI) were performed at various CO 2 partial pressures, dissolved Ca, Mg, and P concentrations, and carbonate alkalinities. Synthetic waters, comparable in inorganic constituents to irrigation and drainage waters, were prepared, spiked with 0.1 (soil) and 2 mg U(VI) L -1 (synthetic goethite), and analyzed for U, P (when applicable), and major ions. Total chemical analyses were input into the computer program FITEQL to determine U(VI) speciation and generate U(VI) adsorption constants with the diffuse layer model (also referred to as the two-layer model). Maximum adsorption occurred in solutions with low carbonate alkalinities (≤3 mmol L -1 ), ionic strengths (≤ 0.03 M), Ca concentrations (≤ 4 mmol L -1 ), and P concentrations (

Trace metal activities are important in relation to metal bioavailability in soils, but they are difficult to measure. We compared Cd 2+ activities determined by four different methods in laboratory prepared solutions and soil saturation extracts. The methods include (i) the ion selective electrode, (ii) the Cd 2+ addition method, (iii) the metal-ion chelate equilibria method, and (iv) GEOCHEM-PC, a computer chemical speciation program. The laboratory prepared solutions of known Cd concentrations ranged from 10 -8 to 10 -4 M Cd in a simple noncomplexing inorganic matrix to a complex matrix of inorganic and organic ligands that resembled a soil solution. There was good agreement between Cd 2+ activities determined by the ion selective electrode and GEOCHEM-PC in test solutions for Cd concentrations >10 -6.5 M. There was also a good agreement between Cd 2+ activities determined by the addition method and GEOCHEM-PC for test solutions of 10 -8 and 10 -7 M Cd and soil saturation extracts. Cadmium ion activities determined by the chelation method did not agree well with those determined by the addition method or GEOCHEM-PC

Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is a common environmental pollutant that is mobile in soils and is a known mutagen The trivalent form [Cr(III)] has no known mutagenic properties and is highly insoluble and immobile above pH 5 5 Reduction to the trivalent state thus represents an effective mechanism for detoxification and immobilization of Cr(VI) in soil/water systems In this study, we conducted experiments to examine various parameters involving aerobic reduction of Cr(VI) in a field soil We found that organic matter content, bioactivity, and oxygen status were important factors Under optimum conditions, the soil reduced 96% of added Cr(VI) under aerobic, field moist conditions The pH of the system was shown to have little effect Both biological and nonbiological processes were influential, and, of 20 chromate resistant bacterial cultures isolated from soils, 9 were found to actively reduce Cr(VI) to Cr(III) in liquid media Our study suggests that organic amended soils can readily reduce Cr(VI) and could promote excellent removal efficiency either as a primary treatment technique, or in conjunction with bioreactor type wastewater treatment systems

Kesterson Reservoir and other impoundments in the San Joaquin Valley, California, have received large volumes of saline irrigation drainage water that is enriched with trace elements, including As, B, Mo, Se, U, and V. When these ponds are allowed to dry and revert to terrestrial ecosystemms, careful soil water and vegetation management may be needed to prevent toxicological hazards to wildlife and/or livestock. We conducted a 248-d column study in the greenhouse using a soil from Kesterson to assess the growth of salt-and B-tolerant genotypes, and to determine the uptake of As, B, Mo, Se, U and V by these genotypes (...)

Calcite supersaturation in soil solutions has been attributed to errors in measuring Ca2+ and COS2activities, metastable forms of CaC03 or soluble silicates, and organic matter mineralization. Laboratory batch suspensions of soils under controlled CO, and temperature were studied to clarify the mechanism producing calcite supersaturation. Treatments included the addition and removal of organic matter prior to reaction and the use of toluene to suppress microbial activity. The soil solutions were sampled over time and analyzed for Ca2+ and COS2activity. Carbonate activity was determined by two methods: 1) a double titration procedure that separates non-carbonate alkalinity from carbonate alkalinity and 2) acidification and outgassing of dissolved inorganic carbon species as C02. Calcium activity was determined by two methods: 1) specific ion electrode and 2) total Ca analysis plus ion speciation modeling. Calcium-organic matter complexation was taken into account in the speciation calculations. It was found that calcite supersaturation in soil suspensions was not an artifact of inaccurate Ca2+ or COS2activity values. Rather, calcite supersaturation occurred because rapid organic matter mineralization increased the Ca and HC03 concentrations. These elevated Ca and HC03 concentrations persisted because of the slow precipitation kinetics of calcite. Attempts to block organic matter mineralization with toluene only slowed down the reaction in the soils. Removal of organic matter with H202 resulted in Caoxalate formation, and oxidation of the oxalate to HCO,produced elevated COS2activities.

Soils and irrigation drainwaters from the west side of the San Joaquin Valley, California have elevated levels of Mo, U, B, V, As, and Se. Much of the drainwater is disposed of in evaporation ponds that may be periodically dried, resulting in cyclic changes in the redox status of the pond sediments. A laboratory incubation study was conducted to evaluate the effects of redox status on the solubility of trace elements in saline sediments and soils from the San Joaquin valley. The elements U and Mo were mobilized under oxidizing conditions, while Fe, Mn, Ni, V, and As were more soluble under reducing conditions. Reduction and precipitation of Mo, apparently as MoS[sub 2], was observed from 1 to 10 days after flooding, but when reaerated the Mo resolubilized in less than 1 day. The reductive dissolution of Fe- and Mn-oxyhydroxides released adsorbed B, which resulted in an increased solution concentration of B. Low redox conditions in drainwater ponds may reduce the solution concentrations of U, Mo, and Se, thereby reducing their chances of entering the food chain through algae uptake. However, low redox conditions favor the solubilization of As and V, which may pose an alternative threat to wildlife visitingmore » the ponds. 16 refs., 7 figs., 1 tab.« less

Twenty elderly and 20 young Ss drew pictures or wrote words for picture or word stimuli. Elderly Ss had slower response initiation than young Ss, especially when drawing. Beyond this, both age groups processed picture and word stimuli similarly. Elderly and young Ss exhibited equivalent latency increases for cross-modality trials (e.g., draw a picture given a word) over within-modality trials (e.g., draw a picture given a picture), regardless of stimulus or task modality. Strong support was found for a mathematical model of these results, which assumes age-related additive slowing for input and output subprocesses but age invariance for a cross-modality transfer subprocess. However, regressing elderly on young whole-condition latencies indicated general, multiplicative slowing: a discrepancy that questions the utility of the global Brinley plot procedure in revealing the nature of age-related slowing.

Twenty elderly and young subjects performed matched movement plan restructuring and spatial orienting tasks. In the restructuring task, a precue stimulus was presented for 200 ms, followed by a preparation (PI; 250, 500, 1000, or 2000 ms), and the target stimulus. On 75% of the trials, the precue specified the aiming movement response enabling movement plan preparation concerning parameters of arm and direction. On 25% of the trials, the precue incorrectly specified the response requiring movement plan restructuring. The orienting task assessed shifts in perceptual localization of the precue and target stimuli for restructuring task conditions. At PIs of 1000 and 2000 ms, elderly, but not young, subjects restructured a movement plan for direction more quickly than for arm or both parameters. Spatial orienting shifts did not account for these effects.

Quasi-performative verbs collectively satisfy certain constraints for performative speech act syntactic form but differ from one another in the extent of match between the speaker intentions and beliefs conveyed by their use and those specified for a “felicitous” or ideal speech act of a given type. Tested in two experiments was a componential model representing affirmative and negative forms of two speaker intentions— Desire and assuredness of Ability to perform some task—conveyed by four quasi-performative verbs (i.e., promise, agree, hope , and guess ) when used in verbal commitments embedded in a dialog script. In Experiment 1, latencies for verifying questions probing the speaker intentions conveyed by the verbs supported the model: (a) Affirmative components were processed faster than negative components and (b) YES responses were faster than NO responses for affirmative components, while (c) YES responses were slower than NO responses for negative components. In Experiment 2, verbal commitment reading latency was shorter when speaker intentions—explicitly presented in the dialog script—were polarity consistent than when they were polarity inconsistent with the corresponding verb components. Further, verification latencies of Experiment 1 and posttrial judgments of “speaker committedness” from Experiment 2 indicated component-independent processing in comprehending these verbs. These findings argue strongly for a propositional representation of the pragmatic meaning of quasi-performative verbs. It is proposed that the particular salience of speaker intentions in speech act comprehension predisposes this aspect of quasi-performative verb meaning to be decomposed into corresponding components.

The water infiltration rate of saline sodic soils often limits the rate of reclamation. Column leaching studies were conducted to determine if water-soluble, synthetic polymers would be beneficial in improving the hydraulic conductivity and aid reclamation of a heavy-textured, saltaffected soil. Soil samples from a swelling soil (fine, montmorillonitic [calcareous] Thermic Vertic Haplaquoll) were collected from a field site that bad exchangeable sodium percentages (ESP) of 8, 12, 20, 25, 32, and 35. The air-dried soil samples were treated with polyacrylamide polymers (one nonionic and two anionic) and one cationic guar-derivative polymer at a rate of 50 mg kg. Polymer treatments had a highly significant effect on increasing the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil samples with ESP values 15. The addition of gypsum increased the hydraulic conductivity from 0.0 to 0.063 mm h 1 in the soil with an ESP of 32. When polymers were used in conjunction with gypsum, the hydraulic conductivity increased to 0.28 mm h. We attributed the improvement in hydraulic conductivity with polymer treatment at low ESP values and in the gypsum-treated soil to a reduction in soil slaking and dispersion. At ESP values > 15, an additional mechanism that may have been controlling the hydraulic conductivity was swelling, and none of the polymers reduced soil swelling. View complete article To view this complete article, insert Disc 5 then click button8

Reclamation of salt-affected high shrink-swell soils using chemical amendments combined with deep loosening and tile drainage is very expensive. As an alternative, the utilization of cracks as pathways for water and salts is possible if these cracks could be stabilized by the application of a polyacrylamide (PAM) polymer and their complete closure prevented upon rewetting. A laboratory column study was conducted on two soil samples with exchangeable sodium percentages (ESP) of 8 and 25 from a heavy-textured, swelling soil. The soil samples were packed into columns, ponded with irrigation water for 24 h, then drained and dried to create cracks. After drying, the soil samples were ponded for 24 h with irrigation water containing 0, 25, 75, and 200 mg L⁻¹ of an anionic polyacrylamide polymer, allowed to drain, and dried. The treated soils were then ponded without drainage for 1, 6, 12, and 24 h to allow crack closure and the hydraulic conductivity (HC) and effluent salinity were measured. The experiment was repeated except that the polymer solution was added to the soil without initially creating the cracks. An additional study was carried out to test the durability of the polymer when subjected to wetting and drying cycles. Increasing the amount of polymer significantly increased the HC and salt removal in the cracked soils. When the polymer solution was applied directly onto soils without initially creating cracks, there was no increase in HC on the ESP 8 soil and a small increase on the ESP 25 soil. The polymer had a stabilizing effect on soil cracks, but the increase in HC did not persist through several wetting and drying cycles.

In order to accurately model soil reclamation with concentrated electrolytes such as CaCl2 or sea water, it must be determined if there is an effect of salinity on the Na-Ca exchange selectivity. A new procedure for determining Na-Ca selectivity in calcareous and gypsiferous soils was used to study the effects of ionic strength and mineralogy on Na-Ca exchange. Four specimen clay minerals and three whole soils were equilibrated with solutions ranging in concentration from 10 to 1000 mmolc L' and at Na adsorption ratios from 1 to SO (mmol L~'). Exchangeable-cation values were corrected for calcite and gypsum dissolution as well as anion exclusion. The selectivity data were compared with other reported values for Na-Ca exchange in order to determine if there were any trends in selectivity with mineralogy or surface charge density. Generally, NaCa selectivity was independent of ionic strength. Vermiculite exhibited near-ideal exchange when compared with the nonpreference isotherm. There was no effect of mineralogy on the Na-Ca selectivity, even though the soils and minerals had various surface charge densities. The Gapon selectivity coefficients (KG) for the calcareous Many Farms soil (a mesic Torrifluvent) and the gypsiferous Shiprock soil (a mesic Torriorthent) averaged 0.011 and 0.013 (mmol L~')~i respectively. Failure to correct for anion exclusion and minC. Amrhein, Dep. of Soil and Environmental Sciences, Univ. of California, Riverside, CA 92521; and D.L. Suarez, U.S. Salinity Lab., USDA-ARS, 4500 Glenwood Dr., Riverside, CA 92501. Submitted by the U.S. Salinity Lab. Received 26 Jan. 1990. *Corresponding author. Published in Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 55:698-706 (1991). eral weathering lowered these average A"G values to 0.0085 and 0.0064, respectively. The data were compared with the Vanselow (Kv = 4.3), nonpreference (Ay = 1.0), Gapon (JiTG = 0.015), and the diffuse double-layer (DDL) models. After the review of the problems associated with the various methods of determining exchangeable cations, we recommend that the alcohol rinse method to remove soluble salts not be used. M SALT-AFFECTED SOILS require the addition of chemical amendments prior to leaching to remove soluble salts and replace adsorbed Na. In order to calculate the amount of amendment needed to reclaim a sodic soil, knowledge is required of the equilibrium relationship between the solution and exchanger phase composition of the soil. Traditionally, this relationship has been described using the Gapon convention and conveniently expressed by the linear equation ESR = (Ac SAR) + x [I] where ESR (exchangeable sodium ratio) is equal to ^Na/E(ca+Mg)> where Ef is the equivalent fraction of cation i on the exchanger phase, SAR is the sodium adsorption ratio of the solution phase denned as Na*/ V^(Ca + Mg) with concentrations in mmol L". Since x is a small intercept value, often assumed to AMRHEIN & SUAREZ: SODIUM-CALCIUM EXCHANGE 699 be zero (U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff, 1954), the value of KG can be equated to ESR/SAR and is generally assumed to be a constant over a wide range of soil types, salinity, and exchangeable Na. The U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954) reported an average value for Ka of 0.015 (mmol L-')-' on 59 soil samples from the western USA. Many workers have reported variations in KG, and it is felt by many to be site specific (Levy and Hillel, 1968; Doering and Willis, 1980; Nadler and Magaritz, 1981). Two factors that are known to affect the NaCa selectivity relationship are organic-matter content (organic matter tends to increase Ca preference [Pratt and Grover, 1964; Fletcher et al., 1984b]) and pH (particularly in soils containing large amounts of variablecharge materials [Pratt et al., 1962]). In addition, the DDL theory for cation adsorption predicts an increasing Ca preference with increasing ionic strength and decreasing exchangeable Na (Babcock, 1963). The reported changes in Na-Ca selectivity as a function of salinity and exchanger phase composition have been quite variable. Bower (1959) found that the Kc of a montmorillonitic clay soil was not significantly affected by solution concentration (50-200 mmolc L~') but increased with increasing exchangeable Na; that is, Na preference increased with increasing ENa. Similar results were found by Pratt et al. (1962) on a soil high in amorphous clays and kaolinite and equilibrated with solutions that ranged in concentration from 50 to 330 mmolc L". They also found that the selectivity coefficient of this soil was strongly pH dependent. On the other hand, Doering and Willis (1980) reported that the KG of a strip-mine spoil material (montmorillonitic) was constant with variations in £Na but showed a strong dependence on ionic strength, decreasing from 0.0163 to 0.0085 (mmol L-')~ at ionic strengths from 0.04 to 1.06 molc L", respectively. Jurinak et al. (1984) reported that KG was a constant for a montmorillonitic soil from the Central Valley of California and for a surface overburden material from Montana at all concentrations and SAR values studied (0.01-0.5 molc Land 5-80 (mmol L-'), respectively). On a sample of kaolinitic deep overburden material, KG varied from 0.0138 to 0.0047 (mmol L-i)-i/2 across the concentration range 0.01 to 0.5 molc L-, respectively. They suggested that variations in clay mineralogy were a prime factor determining the ESRSAR relationship. They also noted that correction for anion exclusion was necessary at concentrations > 100 mmolc Lfor accurate exchangeable-Na values. Another convention for describing cation exchange was proposed by Vanselow (1932), in which the activity of the exchangeable cations are equated to their mole fraction (N,) on the exchanger and activity is used for ions in solution. This is in contrast to the Gapon convention, in which solution concentration is used. The mass-action expression for Na-Ca exchange and the Vanselow selectivity coefficient (Kv) for the reaction are as follows

In 2 experiments, elderly and young subjects performed simple reaction time, choice reaction time, and movement plan restructuring tasks, using a stimulus precuing paradigm. In Experiment 1, the precue display (200 ms) and preparation interval (250, 500, 750, or 1,000 ms) were experimentally determined. In Experiment 2, the precue display interval was subject determined. For the restructuring task, the precue specified the response on 75% of the trials, enabling movement plan preparation with respect to movement parameters of arm and direction. On remaining trials, the precue incorrectly specified the response, requiring movement plan restructuring. Elderly, but not young, subjects restructured a movement plan for direction more quickly than for arm or for both parameters. These findings indicate that elderly individuals have poorer movement plan maintenance for direction than for arm and thus exhibit functional change in movement preparation processes relative to young individuals.

Patients' cognitive abilities and verbal expressions of commitment to behavioral change predict different aspects of substance abuse treatment outcome, but these 2 traits have never been examined conjointly. The authors therefore investigated patients' cognitive abilities and verbal expressions of commitment to behavioral change as predictors of retention and drug use outcomes in an outpatient cognitive behavioral treatment (CBT) of adult cocaine-dependent patients. A neuropsychological battery was administered at baseline. Two independent raters used recordings of CBT sessions to code commitment language strength across the temporal segments (e.g., beginning, middle, and end) of 1 session per patient. Better cognitive abilities predicted treatment retention (p < .01) but not drug use, whereas mean commitment strength across the session segments predicted reduced drug use (p = .01). Results indicate that although commitment to behavioral changes such as abstinence may occur independently of patients' cognitive abilities, engagement in the behavioral intervention process appears to depend on cognitive abilities. Future clinical studies should further investigate the relations between cognition and commitment to change and their differential contributions to treatment processes and outcome.

A procedure to determine the exchanger-phase composition (and thus the Na/Ca selectivity) of calcareous and gypsiferous soils was developed and tested on three soils and three phyllosilicate minerals. The procedure corrects for anion exclusion and mineral weathering by measuring the Cl, SO,,, and HCO3 in the soil solution and in the extracting solution. Anion exclusion was found to be significant in the montmorillonite system, but generally less than 10% of the cation-exchange capacity in the soil, illite, and vermiculite systems. Mineral weathering contributed significantly to the total extracted Ca. Thus, exchangeable-Ca values were overestimated by 30 to 500% in the gypsiferous soils and 3 to 20% in the calcareous soils when weathering was neglected. The proposed method allows the determination of cation-exchange capacity, exchangeable-cation composition, and anion exclusion at any solution composition, concentra

Background: Identifying in-session indicators of client outcomes is important in determining the mechanisms of psychotherapeutic treatments, including Motivational Interviewing (MI). The current studies sought to determine if clinician behavior influences client speech, and the extent to which client speech predicted treatment outcome in clients receiving treatment for substance abuse. Methods: Study 1 examined 38 sessions from 5 sites in Project MATCH. Sessions were coded using the Sequential Code for Process Exchanges (SCOPE) behavioral coding system. Transition probabilities and inter-rater reliability were calculated. Study 2 examined 45 sessions from the New Mexico site in Project MATCH. Sessions were coded using the MISC 1.0 behavioral coding system. Distal outcome measures were calculated for proportion of days abstinent (PDA) and drinks per drinking day (DDD). Hierarchical multiple regression and hierarchical logistic regression were used to characterize the relationship between client speech and outcome. Results: In Study 1, inter-rater reliability estimates indicate that coders reliably distinguished between the categories within the SCOPE. Behaviors consistent with MI (MICO) were significantly likely to be followed by client Change Talk (CT) and behaviors inconsistent with MI (MIIN) were significantly likely to be followed by Counterchange Talk (CCT). There was also a significant negative transition probability between MICO and CCT. In Study 2, CT was found to account for significant portions of outcome variability beyond that attributable to baseline measures of problem severity. Conclusions: Client speech during early therapy sessions appears to be a powerful predictor of substance abuse outcome. The pattern of therapist behaviors and subsequent client language found in this data supports the intervention test in the causal chain we have described for motivational interviewing. These studies provide preliminary support for a causal chain between therapist behaviors, subsequent client speech, and drinking outcomes within motivational interviewing sessions. The results of both studies provide further support to the proposition that client speech impacts the likelihood of behavioral change, and that the occurrence of such speech is influenced by the therapist.

Teleconferencing Supervision is a method for training community-based substance abuse clinicians in Motivational Interviewing (MI). Following a 2-day workshop, 13 clinicians received live supervision via telephone during 5 counseling sessions conducted at their community treatment facilities. Clinicians were assessed for skill level at post-workshop, at post-training, and 3 months later; learning was assessed using the MI Treatment Integrity instrument. All summary scores and therapist behavior frequency counts improved by post-training or by the 3 month follow-up, although some gains were not statistically significant. Teleconferencing Supervision may help facilitate the proficient use of MI community clinicians following workshop instruction.