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Suicide has long been considered as nearing ‘epidemic levels’ in law enforcement populations. Nevertheless, despite the argued scale of the problem, no review has yet systematically examined the evidence base to elucidate the risk factors or predictors implicated in the suicidal behaviours of police officers. The current review aims to do this, by considering a final sample of 20 papers that met inclusion criteria. Findings from this qualitative review revealed five superordinate risk factors (i.e., problematic substance use close to, or at the time of death; presence of depression and previous suicide attempts; differences in trauma response; exposure to excessive and prolonged job-related stress, including dissatisfaction; absence of a stable intimate relationship), which when taken in isolation each incrementally contributed to suicide risk, but when found to be comorbid, appeared to markedly increase the likelihood of completed suicide. Implications for suicide prevention, policy design, and treatment formulation are discussed, along with limitations and directions for future research.

This paper aims to consider the under-researched association between alexithymia and aggression perpetration, accounting for its raised prevalence in offender populations. Using a Rapid Evidence Assessment (REA), a total of 37 papers were included. Five subordinate themes were identified; (1) Those with alexithymia are reactive but not primarily instrumentally/proactively aggressive; (2) Difficulties in identifying and distinguishing between feelings and somatic sensations, is particularly predictive of aggression; (3) Continuum-based measures are more sensitive than categorical-based measures of aggression in detecting an association between alexithymia and aggression; (4) Prison environments could exacerbate the manifestation of alexithymia and the association with aggression, and (5) The association between alexithymia and aggression in forensic and community mental health populations is understudied. Evidence was clear in indicating an association between alexithymia and aggression, thereby raising the value of this clinical concept to future aggression research and considerations for assessment and therapeutic engagement with those presenting with aggression who may otherwise be considered simply to ‘lack empathy’. It would appear such a conclusion would be too rudimentary and fail to acknowledge the complexity of what could be an alexithymia presentation.

Purpose This study aims to explore the impact of inclusion of victim empathy-based content in offender treatment. Design/methodology/approach This study first presents a systematic review of 20 papers before proceeding to consider qualitative interviews with therapists (n = 7) and forensic patients (n = 5), who had completed a long-term violence therapy (Life Minus Violence – Enhanced, LMV-E©). The research explored perceptions of forensic patients and treatment facilitators when completing victim empathy work and explored any negative effects this may have. Findings Findings from the systematic review indicated five themes: interventions incorporating victim empathy can be effective; there are positive risk-understanding consequences from completing victim empathy work; offenders perceive victim empathy positively; the emotional impact of victim empathy work on offenders’ is poorly explored; and completing victim empathy in treatment groups receives mixed evaluations from offenders. The systematic review was used to inform the interview themes for the resulting qualitative study with facilitators and forensic patients. This study indicated six themes: victim empathy content facilitates change; victim empathy content can be difficult for patients; victim empathy content can lead to an emotional response; victim empathy content can be beneficial, with the process important; victim empathy content can help understand risk, and patients’ experience of treatment begins before attending sessions. Practical implications The potential impact of victim empathy content needs to be evaluated before sessions are completed, accounting for client expectations and treatment readiness. This should include ensuring that appropriate support is in place. Any support provided to patients should be regularly reviewed. Originality/value The study represents the first to apply detailed analysis to this topic area and with a complex group.

A measure for the assessment of self-injurious behaviour is developed. Commencing with a Delphi comprised of 33 experts; detached experts (academics), experts by exposure (staff) and experts by experience (patients), the Theory-driven Measure of Self-Injurious Behaviour Engagement (TM-SIBE) is outlined. This is then examined in two samples; high secure psychiatric male patients (n = 76) and high secure psychiatric nursing staff (n = 100; 50 men, 50 women). We predicted that all components of the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) and the capacity, belongness and burdensomeness elements of the Interpersonal Psychological Theory of Suicidal Behaviour (IPTSB) would be confirmed as important inclusions. Results initially demonstrated the importance of including intention, perceived behavioural control, affect, capacity, burdensomeness. The role of environmental and individual factors, such as coping, were captured as additional variables of value. However, the structure of items differed between patients and staff. Being valued consistently represented a core consideration, as did capacity and affect. Directions for future research are indicated.

Presented is a preliminary study into the effectiveness of a cognitive skills programme, Thinking Minds, conducted with an adult male forensic psychiatric population (n = 27; 18 treatment, nine waiting list controls). It also addresses the approach to evaluating treatment effectiveness by capturing both group and individual effects. All participants were given a series of measures, to assess domains where treatment effect was thought likely to occur. This included impulsivity, coping, emotional control and self-esteem. It was predicted the treatment group would evidence positive change following the intervention, with no change in waiting list controls. Results indicated partial acceptance of the group effect prediction, with the waiting list control demonstrating no group change across time and the treatment group demonstrating improvement in rational and detached coping and in the social component of self-esteem. The individual change results demonstrated a mixed picture. It confirmed improvement in adaptive coping and social self-esteem for the treatment group but widened positive effects to cover aggression control. It also indicated evidence of deterioration on outcome measures. Deterioration was noted across all measures for the control group, suggesting that a degree of deterioration may be a naturally occurring process on self-report measures, regardless of intervention. This is an issue that future evaluations need to reflect on and accommodate. Results are discussed with regards to how the findings can begin to influence our approach to treatment evaluation.

The police service, as well as Local Authorities, are under increasing pressure to prioritise, prevent, and disrupt child abuse, and which has arguably been driven by a number of high-profile UK-based national case reviews and inquiries that have subsequently highlighted collective failures. There is thus a call for empirical study to inform and enhance practice, and to meet the priorities outlined within the Home Office’s child protection agenda. This special issue brings together emerging research and developments on investigating child abuse and safeguarding children, with an emphasis on informing policing and investigative practice. A collection of work is presented that draws on a range of unique methodologies and samples to engage readers and offer thought-provoking implications for development.

ObjectivesThe length of forensic stay (LoS) is a subject to country-specific legal and service systems. Therefore, the identification of common factors targetable by treatment is at the forefront of forensic psychiatric research. In this study, we present the first reports of forensic characteristics of patients from the Czechia.MethodsWe conducted a retrospective analysis of data from 260 inpatients discharged from the Bohnice Hospital (Prague) and obtained a set of sociodemographic and clinical variables as well as the Health of the Nation Outcome Scale (HoNOS) and HoNOS-secure scores.ResultsThe following variables were identified as significantly associated with a longer LoS: older age, length of previous psychiatric hospitalization, olanzapine equivalent, clozapine treatment, psychosocial dysfunction, psychotic or paraphilic disorder diagnosis, and sexual offense. A shorter LoS was associated with being in a relationship, being employed before hospitalization, receiving personal support, and committing an index offense under the influence of substance. While the HoNOS score and HoNOS symptom subscale predicted a longer LoS, the HoNOS-secure subscale predicted a shorter stay.ConclusionIn the European context, our hospital has a relatively low LoS. The results are consistent with findings linking psychotic disorders and paraphilia with a longer LoS in forensic treatment. Higher doses of antipsychotic medication or clozapine prescriptions were associated with a longer LoS. The results show a high level of unmet needs in this population, highlighting the importance of the availability of follow-up service.

Background In the UK, around one-third of young people are exposed to Intimate Partner Violence and Abuse (IPVA) by 21 years old. However, types of IPVA victimization in this population (psychological, physical, sexual), and their relationship with impact and perpetration are poorly understood. Methods Participants in a UK birth cohort reported IPVA victimization and perpetration by age 21. We carried out a latent class analysis, where we categorized IPVA by types/frequency of victimization, and then assigned individuals to their most probable class. Within these classes, we then estimated rates of reported: 1) types of negative impacts (sad, upset/unhappy, anxious, depressed, affected work/studies, angry/annoyed, drank/took drugs more); 2) types/frequency of perpetration. Results Among 2130 women and 1149 men, 32% and 24% reported IPVA victimization (of which 89% and 73% reported negative impact); 21% and 16% perpetration. Victimization responses were well represented by five classes, including three apparent in both sexes: No-low victimization (characterized by low probabilities of all types of victimization; average probabilities of women and men belonging to this class were 82% and 70%); Mainly psychological (15% and 12%); Psychological and physical victimization (4% and 7%), and two classes that were specific to women: Psychological and sexual (7%); Multi-victimization (frequent victimization for all three types; 4%). In women, all types of negative impact were most common in the Psychological and sexual and Multi-victimization classes; for men, the Psychological and physical class. In women, all types of perpetration were most common for the Mainly psychological, Psychological and physical and Multi-victimization classes; in men, the Mainly psychological and Psychological and physical classes. Discussion In this study of young people, we found categories of co-occurrence of types and frequency of IPVA victimization associated with differential rates of negative impact and perpetrating IPVA. This is consistent with emerging evidence of IPVA differentiation and its variable impact in other populations.

Purpose This paper aims to examine the prevalence of child sexual exploitation (CSE) and factors connected in a young adult population, through a series of connected studies. Each study considered exposure to poly-victimisation. The series of studies focussed on a number of factors felt to impact vulnerability and protective factors towards CSE. Specifically caregiver bonds, resilience and attachment style, adolescent risk-taking, quality of caregiver bonds, level/type of supportive relationships and positive schemas, as well as the impact of CSE disclosure and links to attachment style and maladaptive schemas. Design/methodology/approach These studies looked at a young adult population, mainly women. Study one (n = 263), study two (n = 138) and study three (n = 211), predominantly collected via a series of online measures. Findings Findings demonstrated that around half of children under 16 years had been approached sexually by an adult, with approximately one in four children subsequently exploited. Various results were noted, such as experiencing a primary caregiver as lacking in warmth and affection was associated with those reporting CSE, with further exposure to poly-victimisation contributing to a less functional coping style and insecure attachments. CSE was not associated with higher levels of adolescent risk-taking, poor bonds with the primary caregiver, fewer important childhood relationships and positive schemas. Practical implications This paper notes the importance of addressing the functions of behaviours for victims, to reduce re-victimisation risk. It noted the importance of applying theory when working with this population. It introduced the protect and vulnerability model against CSE and has practical applications for professionals working with victims of CSE. This paper argues the importance of individualised assessments for children who are deemed to be “at-risk” of CSE. Originality/value Findings were combined to propose the protection against the CSE model and the application of this to intervention and future research is acknowledged.

The contribution of cognition to the sleep-aggression relationship is explored via three connected studies, involving adult male forensic patients detained in a high secure hospital. Study 1 included 31 patients, interviewed to examine their experiences of specific sleep problems. In Study 2, 42 patients completed a series of measures examining sleep dysfunction, aggression, and cognition, while Study 3 was designed to impact on sleep via a cognitive approach. In the latter, 48 patients were randomly assigned as part of a feasibility trial to one of three conditions: mindfulness (cognitive approach), sleep education, and treatment as usual. Collectively, the studies demonstrated the multifaceted nature of cognition in the sleep-aggression relationship, with a need to account fully for cognitive factors. A preliminary conceptual model is outlined - the Cognitive Sleep Model for Aggression and Self Harm (CoSMASH), as a direction for future research to consider.

The current research explored the prevalence of stressful events in a forensic hospital setting, and their impact on staff. A systematic review of the literature on responses following exposure to extreme stress comprised 46 articles. This was followed by a Delphi study of professionals based in a forensic hospital (n = 43) to explore views on the factors that affect responses to extreme stress. This comprised three rounds to build consensus. Finally, a study of forensic hospital staff was conducted (n = 153, 47% male) to capture current trauma symptoms. The systematic review indicated three superordinate themes: outcomes adversely impacting staff and patients; personal characteristics moderating the impact of events; and organisational and interpersonal support moderating the impact of events. The Delphi supported these themes and noted the importance of factors external to the workplace and internal factors, such as self-blame. The final study demonstrated how a fifth of the workforce showed at least some trauma symptomology. Those who experienced less burnout reported lower trauma symptoms, while staff who experienced higher levels of secondary trauma at work reported higher levels of trauma symptoms. A higher level of resilience was related to lower levels of trauma symptomology. Findings are discussed in relation to the importance of recognising trauma in staff and implementing strategies to reduce and/or buffer the impact of stress on wellbeing. In doing so, the research presents a new model for consideration and development, the Impact and Amelioration of extreme stress events Model (IA-Model).

Three linked studies, testing key aspects of the Pathways towards Problem and Pathological Gambling Model (Blaszczynski and Nower in Addiction 87(5):487–499, 2002), are presented. Study one comprised 204 students and 490 gambling forum users. It predicted differences in gambling severity, mental health and substance use across different motives for gambling. Those with a primary social motive for gambling displayed less severe gambling and anxiety than those without, with the primary coping subgroup displaying the most anxiety and depression. Those who gambled primarily to enhance positive affect reported severe gambling. Study two comprised 404 gambling forum users and 265 students. Similar groups to the Pathways Model emerged, with a behaviourally conditioned and an emotionally vulnerable group. Unexpectedly, however, those in the emotionally vulnerable group reported more severe cognitive distortions than the behaviourally conditioned group. The final study, 378 gambling forum users and 201 students, found, as predicted, that three distinct gambling groups emerged; (1) those with lower levels of psychopathology and higher levels of protective factors; (2) those with heightened pre-existing anxiety and depression, and moderate levels of protective factors; and (3) those with heightened impulsivity, psychopathology, offending behaviour and the least protective factors. Three gambling groups are consequently presented (Social Gambler; Affect-Regulation Gambler; Antisocial Gambler) alongside the proposed Integrated Risk and Protective Factors Model of Gambling Types (IRPF-MGT). Directions for future research and implications for practice are outlined.

The current study examined the psychopathy-aggression relationship by considering different forms of aggression, including aggressive motivation. Emotions were explored as useful in understanding any emerging relationship, notably those consistent with detachment and sensitivity/poor regulation. In three studies, involving non-offending samples (Study one: n = 150, 47 men, 103 women; Study two: n = 442, 314 men, 123 women, five not disclosed; Study three: n = 200, 100 men and 100 women), it was predicted that higher levels of psychopathy would be associated with reports of higher overall, proactive and reactive aggression, and that the association would be moderated by emotion. Specifically, it was predicted that emotion regulation difficulties would associate with higher levels of reactive but not proactive aggression, and that proactive aggression would involve a lack of emotion. Findings generally supported the predictions. The role of emotion-regulation difficulties as a mediator between psychopathy and reactive aggression, and greater emotional detachment as a mediator between psychopathy and proactive aggression was demonstrated. The results demonstrate importance for the components of psychopathy and different aspects of emotion for the psychopathy-aggression link. Directions for future research and some implications for practice are outlined.

Negotiation teams are well established within tactical policing. Police agencies select and train personnel they deem suitable to act as negotiators during critical incidents. Consultants, such as forensic psychologists, have been considered as a means of increasing success during critical incidents through the specialist advice they are able to provide. However, there remains little research on the effectiveness of the advisor role and whether it is perceived by policing colleagues to be of benefit to the negotiation process. This will be discussed whilst also considering the consultancy process and how the forensic psychologist’s skill set may benefit negotiation teams. This manuscript will focus predominantly on hostage-taking as an example, as this is where a significant portion of the literature originated.

Staff beliefs toward patient self-harm in secure forensic services are explored, capturing forensic nurses and other clinical staff from four secure units from one National Health Service trust, comprising high through low and forensic learning disability. One hundred fifty-five respondents took part (overall completion rate: 61%). The Theory-Driven Measure of Self-Injurious Behavior and the Suicide Competency Assessment Form were completed. It was predicted that higher competency and increased levels of training would associate with beliefs toward patient self-harm. Beliefs differed in accordance to location; perceiving self-injurious behavior as planned and within patient control was endorsed more in high-security settings by forensic nurses, with nurses in high security also more likely to endorse the perception that patients engaging in such behaviors were able to cope and felt valued. Competence and training experience were identified as factors of relevance. The study offers suggestions for future research, including a focus on capturing the environment, exploring "endorsed beliefs" as opposed to "negative attitudes," and proposing the concept of "professional exposure to self-harm" as an important variable.

Purpose This paper aims to assess whether the factor structure of the Psychopathic Processing and Personality Assessment (PAPA) could be confirmed in a large community sample (n = 1,850), comprising three subsamples of adult men (n = 189, 248 and 198) and women (n = 499, 469 and 247). It was predicted that the four-factor solution originally proposed in earlier studies (i.e. dissocial tendencies, emotional detachment, disregard for others, lack of sensitivity to emotion) would be replicated and produce a multi-dimensional structure consistent across sex. Design/methodology/approach This study explored the structure of the newly developed PAPA among a non-forensic sample. Findings Although exploratory analysis indicated a four-factor solution, the structure was different with “lack of sensitivity to emotion” being replaced by “responsiveness to perceived aggression.” Confirmatory analyses supported this structure among women, yet a three-factor structure was preferred for men that excluded emotional detachment. Research limitations/implications This study highlights the importance of attending to sex differences when assessing for psychopathy. Originality/value This is the first confirmatory factor analysis completed on the PAPA, with the findings conveying its value when assessing for psychopathic traits among a community sample.

There are many types of evidence available after a crime has been committed. Some evidence is physical, including fingerprints, footprints and DNA (e.g., Bradbury & Feist, 2005). Forensic officers attempt to recover information of this type from a crime scene for analysis. The hope, of course, is that the outcome will lead to identification the person(s) responsible. Success usually depends on recidivism: an offender has been convicted of a previous offence and his or her identifying information is available to be searched on a database of fingerprints, footprints, DNA, etc. A similar situation applies to CCTV footage (e.g., Davies & Thasen, 2000). The hope now is that the offender has been caught on camera and a clear image of the face can be extracted. The image can then be compared against a database of known offenders for potential matches. It can also be circulated within a police force, or in the media, with the aim that someone who is familiar with the person will report him or her to the authorities. This use of evidence is psychological in nature due to the need for a human to recognise the face; it is considered by Richard Kemp and colleagues in Chapter 1 of this volume. A different situation also involving human recognition occurs when police officers have only seen a photograph of a wanted person, and so the face is unfamiliar, as discussed by Kara Moore and James Lampinen in Chapter 3. As part of collecting all available evidence, the police will interview victims or bystanders who were present when the crime took place. Specific interviewing techniques have been developed for observers who may be able to provide an account of the crime and those involved (e.g., Fisher, 1995). Evidence collected in this way can be particularly important in the absence of the aforementioned evidence, or when recovering useful evidence may take a long time such that further crime occurs. One (or more) of these observers might also be able to construct a composite image of the offender’s face. This part of a person’s appearance is particularly important for identification—although gait, voice, characteristic motion and possibly other human characteristics may facilitate recognition to some extent (as mentioned later). As with CCTV evidence, an image is circulated for identification. Again, the aim is that someone who is familiar with the person will name the face to police, providing an investigation with a potential suspect (e.g., Ellis & Shepherd, 1992). Subsequent police-work will collect evidence to assess whether or not the named person is likely to be responsible for the crime. Sometimes, a facial composite is constructed of someone with whom the police would like to make contact in order to eliminate him or her from the investigation, or to locate a potential witness, but composites are usually created of an offender, specifically a perpetrator of serious crime. In this chapter, my aim is to assess facial composites as a reliable method of identification. Face-production systems have changed greatly over the years, as have methods of their deployment. Early ‘feature’ systems in the 1970s and 1980s are not reliable, nor are their computerised descendants, but the newer ‘holistic’ systems (esp. EvoFIT) can now create identifiable faces, for the first time providing a reliable means to identify offenders using this forensic technique. I also look to the future to consider promising techniques that may allow composites to be made even more effective.

Standard forensic practice necessitates that a witness describes an offender’s face prior to constructing a visual likeness, a facial composite. However, describing a face can interfere with face recognition, although a delay between description and recognition theoretically should alleviate this issue. In Experiment 1, participants produced a free recall description either 3-4 hours or 2 days after intentionally or incidentally encoding a target face, and then constructed a composite using a modern ‘feature’ system immediately or after 30-minutes. Unexpectedly, correct naming of composites significantly reduced following the 30-minute delay between description and construction for targets encoded 2 days previously. In, Experiment 2, participants in these conditions gave descriptions that were better matched to their targets by independent judges, a result which suggests that the 30-minute delay actually impairs access to details of recalled descriptions that are valuable for composite effectiveness. Experiment 3 found the detrimental effect of description delay extended to composites constructed from a ‘holistic’ face production system. The results have real-world but counterintuitive implications for witnesses who construct a face one or two days after a crime: after having recalled the face to a practitioner, an appreciable delay (here, 30 minutes) should be avoided before starting face construction.

Interventions are increasingly being designed to disrupt ongoing criminal activity rather than identify crimes that have already been committed (Innes & Sheptycki, 2004). The emerging emphasis on disrupting organised criminal groups can be contrasted with older enforcement led approaches, which were resource intensive and limited in their success (Kirby & Nailer, 2013). Rational choice theory (Cornish & Clarke, 1986) assumes that individuals adopt a rational perspective when engaging in illicit activity and can therefore be diverted away if the cost of doing so outweighs the benefits. This holds some premise for the disruption of organised criminal groups, providing that the complexities of this phenomena are better understood. Organised criminal networks are heterogenous and operate at varying levels (Kirby & Nailer, 2013), engage with other known associates and diversify into different types of crime (Galeotti, 2005); making assessment of their strategies problematic. There is a common understanding, nevertheless, that criminal groups are ultimately driven by profit with violence, intimidation and coercion administered to further their criminal purpose and obstruct the policing response to them (Dean, Fahsing & Gottschalk, 2010; Stelfox, 1996). Yet, it is this behaviour that makes members of organised criminal groups visible and susceptible to intervention, thereby making disruption viable. \ud \ud The chapter will expand on this approach, defining organised crime before identifying a number of multi-agency strategies adopted to tackle behaviours, such as violence, often thought to be a vessel for maximising criminal entrepreneurship. There will be a focus on organised crime manifesting in the United Kingdom (UK), solely making reference to other countries for comparison purposes.

The study investigates aggression motivation and the cognitive and developmental profiles of aggressors. Participants were 210 adult male prisoners, in the UK. All completed measures of aggression motivation, cognitive schemas, aggression normative beliefs, and attachment. Developmental history was also examined. It was predicted that aggression motivation would comprise several motives, in keeping with previous research (i.e. protection, social recognition, positive outcome and pleasure motives). Disciplinarian parenting practice was predicted to associate with reactive aggression and permissive parenting practice with proactive aggression. Related to this, distinct attachment styles were also expected. Cognitive schemas and normative beliefs were predicted to be associated with aggression type. Results indicated that aggression motives comprised three factors; pleasure, protection and positive social outcome. There was thus some similarity to prior research but not complete consistency. Developmentally, reactive types reported more problematic childhood behaviours. Mixed motive types disclosed higher rates of positive childhood experiences, purposeful peer relationships, coupled with elements of severe parental discipline. Reactive and mixed types reported increased rates of fearful-avoidant childhood attachment. Mixed types were also found to have more normative aggression beliefs. Associations were established with maladaptive schemas; the proactive aggressor to an abandonment schema, reactive to a mistrust schema, and other schemas with mixed motive aggressors. Results are discussed with reference to theoretical and clinical implications.

Purpose For decades, psychopathy has been thought to be untreatable. Yet, conceptualisations, and indeed its assessment, have deviated away from viewing the disorder as personality pathology towards a behavioural focus where the core underlying deficits in cognition and affect have been ignored. Interventions have followed suit leading to a premature discounting of the role of therapy in adjusting psychopathic traits. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach The review critically evaluates the conceptual and empirical evidence relevant to the treatment of psychopathy, deciphering components integral to the disorder that require intervention. Psychopathy is approached from a developmental perspective, with the review identifying several mechanisms thought to be responsible for precipitating and perpetuating its expression. Findings There appears some utility in targeting psychopathy from multiple angles, addressing experiences of trauma, associated schemas and the underlying cognitive-affective dysfunction noted to give rise to psychopathic traits. A new model for treatment was proposed integrating these factors to encourage the design of effective interventions that will address the origins and underlying deficits of the disorder, rather than symptomology. Originality/value The review encourages future research to consider the aetiology of psychopathy, with the aim of informing early intervention and containing the disorder whilst in its infancy, as well as addressing neurobiological dysfunction when most malleable.

Aims and methodWe explored the prevalence and use of constant supportive observations (CSO) in high, medium and low secure in-patient services in a single National Health Service (NHS) mental health trust. From clinical records, we extracted data on the length of time of CSO, the reason for the initiation of CSO and associated adverse incidents for all individuals who were placed on CSO between July 2013 and June 2014.ResultsA small number of individuals accounted for a disproportionately large proportion of CSO hours in each setting. Adverse incident rates were higher on CSO than when not on CSO. There was considerable variation between different settings in terms of CSO use and the reasons for commencing CSO.Clinical implicationsThe study describes the prevalence and nature of CSO in secure forensic mental health services and the associated organisational costs. The marked variation in CSO use between settings suggests that mental health services continue to face challenges in balancing risk management with minimising restrictive interventions.Declaration of interestA.B. and J.L.I. are both directly employed by the NHS trust in which the study was conducted.

This chapter considers prison gangs by outlining definitional challenges that concern this social phenomenon before examining the importance of accounting for the specifics of prison environments. It presents a social eco-system approach to understanding prison gangs and, in doing so, accounts for theories of importation, strain and deprivation, incorporating these into a proposed Gang Social-Ecosystem Model. The chapter draws to a close by challenging the more pejorative approach to defining and understanding gangs, particularly in prisons. The development of prison gangs remains poorly understood, with research limited, descriptive and largely atheoretical. There is a need to avoid focus on myths concerning development and to concentrate more on the specifics of the environment and the role of direct importation and adaption/deprivation. There is increasing acceptance, both empirically and theoretically, that prisoners become involved in challenging behaviours because of an interaction between what they bring with them to the environment and the environment itself.

Given raised rates of patient suicide and violence in secure psychiatric facilities, staff in such settings are arguably at increased risk for burnout and reduced mental health. The present article responds to the recent U.K. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) call to assess workforce well-being. This article held the following aims: (1) to quantify existing levels of mental health (i.e., depression, anxiety, distress, and posttraumatic stress) and subjective well-being (i.e., job satisfaction, life satisfaction, and four domains of burnout) and (2) to evaluate Coping Self-Efficacy (CSE) and Need for Affect (NFA) as factors associated with staff mental health and subjective well-being. We conducted a voluntary cross-sectional health needs assessment of forensic mental health staff (N = 170) between 2017 and 2018 from one National Health Service (NHS) Trust. Descriptive findings suggest staff possessed nonclinical average ranges of mental health symptoms. Subjective well-being findings showed burnout was relatively low, whereas job and life satisfaction were modest. Regression models demonstrated that (a) thought/emotion stopping beliefs were negatively associated with psychological exhaustion; (b) social support beliefs were positively associated with life satisfaction and job enthusiasm; (c) NFA Avoidance was linked with poor mental health and burnout, and; (d) NFA Approach was positively associated with two health subjective well-being indicators. Overall, assessment results suggest NHS forensic mental health staff reported relatively good health. Cognitive- and emotion-focused coping beliefs demonstrate promise as content for prevention programming. Using Emotional Labor Theory, we offer psychological services-based recommendations for future prevention programming and research. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Purpose Sleep deprivation is well known to negatively affect mood, cognition and behaviour. The purpose of this paper is to explore the relationship between sleep quantity, subjective sleep quality and aggression, hostility and well-being levels among adults in a non-clinical population. Design/methodology/approach In total, 201 participants aged 18 and above from Germany, UK and the Netherlands completed an online survey consisting of a Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index along with measures of psychological well-being, implicit and explicit aggression, and intent attributions. Findings Sleep disturbances were related to decreased levels of psychological well-being. Subjective poor sleep quality predicted increased hostile attributions. The overall sleep experience, however, was not associated with aggression levels. Nevertheless, both a poor sleep experience and low sleep quality were related to increased reactive aggression, but only in British participants. Practical implications The importance of perceived sleep quality rather than sleep quantity in predicting hostile and aggressive behaviours is indicated. The quality of sleep and perception of this quality should be the focus of clinical intervention to limit unwanted behavioural impacts. The importance of accounting for sleep quality perception in intervention that examines attributional biases such as hostility is indicated. Differences across countries should be identified and accommodated for in intervention. Originality/value This is the first study to consider a role for sleep quality (including perception) and sleep quantity in relation to aggression and hostility in a cross-country European sample.

Objective: The Suicide Competency Assessment Form (SCAF) provides a framework for suicide prevention skills training. This study assessed SCAF psychometric properties in a sample of behavioral health staff. Method: A cross-sectional survey of National Health Services (NHS) staff from varying disciplines (N=170) was conducted. Results: The SCAF yielded a one-factor structure with high internal consistency. Nursing assistants reported lower SCAF scores compared to other professionals. SCAF scores demonstrated positive associations with prior suicide prevention training, job enthusiasm, and several suicide/self-injury prevention outcome expectations (i.e., optimism working with self-harming patients and perceived ability to help self-harming patients). SCAF scores further demonstrated incremental validity in the form of multivariate model associations with suicide/self-injury prevention outcome expectations. Improved job satisfaction mediated the pathway from SCAF scores to perceived ability to help self-harming patients. Conclusion: The SCAF can be utilized in suicide prevention training and clinical supervision.

Three preliminary and linked studies investigate the impact of making alterations to factors considered relevant to engaging in and experiencing intra-group aggression (bullying) among adult male patients detained in a single secure forensic hospital. Study one (n = 44) outlines the institutional factors, attitudes towards bullying and environmental factors that increase the likelihood of engaging in bullying and or being victimised. Study two (n = 56 patients and 113 staff) assesses the effect of three variations of intervention that aimed to reduce intra-group aggression through direct alteration of the physical and psychosocial environment, using data from both patients and staff. Study three (n = 414) looks at the effects of two variations of the intervention used in study two, which offered patients’ participation in individual and communal activities. It was predicted that changes to the physical and social environment would produce a reduction in the factors shown to predict intra-group aggression. Attitudes supportive of bullying and the presence of social hierarchies each increased the likelihood of engaging in bullying. Indirect changes to the social environment on the wards had more positive effects than those incorporating direct alterations to the physical and social environment. The differences in effectiveness of the two approaches are discussed in relation to the established predictors of intra-group aggression. The research concludes by noting the preliminary nature of the research and outlining potential directions for future research and interventions.

Although psychopathy is widely recognised for its importance in forensic and criminal justice settings, the range of interpersonal relationships that are experienced and engaged in by individuals with psychopathy is understudied. A Rapid Evidence Assessment (Study 1) examined what is known empirically about the nature and quality of relationships for individuals with psychopathy. Affective, Cognitive and Lifestyle Assessment (ACL) interviews and genograms were then analysed in conjunction with Psychopathy Checklist: Screening Version (PCL:SV) scores to explore the extent, nature, and quality of interpersonal relationships in student and forensic psychiatric samples (Study 2). Quantitative data indicated that total psychopathy score predicted a smaller number of positive interpersonal relationships. Findings regarding Factors 1 and 2 and numbers of positive and negative interpersonal relationships varied between samples. Qualitative analyses demonstrated that psychopathic participants used less positive descriptors than non-psychopathic participants when discussing their interpersonal relationships. Findings are examined with regards to implications for future research.

Police require reliable facial-composite systems to help identify, arrest and convict criminals. Recent developments, however, have allowed newer versions of the EvoFIT composite system to be made available for policing. The outcome is an online (cloud-based) version and a new system called Witness At Home, both using a simpler interface. Here, we formally compare these two versions to establish potential benefits to policing. Two experiments were conducted. In Experiment 1, participants observed a target identity for 1 minute and returned 4 hours (Witness At Home) or 24 hours (EvoFIT Online) to construct a composite from memory. No significant difference in composite accuracy was found. In Experiment 2, participants constructed a composite, 24-hours after seeing a target identity, using either EvoFIT Online or Witness At Home. A significant increase in accurate identification was found for EvoFIT Online, with some utility for the self-administered procedure, together indicating benefit for these newer systems plus some areas for development.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate the potential susceptibility of eyewitness memory to the presence of extraneous background speech that comprises a description consistent with, or at odds with, a target face. Design/methodology/approach – A between-participants design was deployed whereby participants viewed an unfamiliar target face in the presence of quiet, or extraneous to-be-ignored speech comprising a verbal description that was either congruent or incongruent with the target face. After a short distractor task, participants were asked to describe the target face and construct a composite of the face using PRO-fit software. Further participants rated the likeness of the composites to the target. Findings – Recall of correct facial descriptors was facilitated by congruent to-be-ignored speech and inhibited by incongruent to-be-ignored speech compared to quiet. Moreover, incorrect facial descriptors were reported more often in the incongruent speech condition compared with the congruent speech and quiet conditions. Composites constructed after exposure to incongruent speech were rated as worse likenesses to the target than those created after exposure to congruent speech and quiet. Whether congruent speech facilitated or impaired composite construction was found to depend on the distinctiveness of the target face. Practical implications – The results suggest that the nature of to-be-ignored background speech has powerful effects on the accuracy of information verbally reported from having witnessed a face. Incongruent speech appears to disrupt the recognition processes that underpin face construction while congruent speech may have facilitative or detrimental effects on this process, depending on the distinctiveness of the target face. Originality/value – This is one of the first studies to demonstrate that extraneous speech can produce adverse effects on the recall and recognition of complex visual information: in this case, the appearance of a human face.

Purpose – The paper provides a detailed description of standard procedures for constructing facial composites. These procedures are relevant to forensic practice and are contained in the technical papers of this special issue; the purpose of this paper is also to provide an expanding reference of procedures for future research on facial composites and facial-composite systems. Design/methodology/approach – A detailed account is given of the interaction between practitioner and witness for producing a facial composite. This account involves an overview of the Cognitive Interview (CI) and the Holistic CI (H-CI) techniques used to obtain a description of the face of an offender (target); the authors then describe how this information is used to produce a composite from five popular face-production systems: Sketch, PRO-fit, Electronic Facial Identification Technique (E-FIT), EvoFIT and EFIT-V. An online annex is also made available to provide procedural information for additional composite systems. Practical implications – The work is valuable to forensic practitioners and researchers as a reference for interviewing techniques (involving a CI or an H-CI) and using facial-composite systems. Originality/value – The authors provide an accessible, current guide for how to administer interviewing techniques and how to construct composites from a range of face-production systems.

This study examined the impact of an intensive inpatient violent offender treatment programme, Life Minus Violence - Enhanced (LMV- E, Ireland, 2008), on intermediary treatment targets, risk for violence, and aggressive behaviour during treatment in a sample of male mentally disordered offenders. Using quasi-experimental design, offenders who completed LMV-E and a comparison group showed reduced problems with impulsivity and anger regulation and improvements in social problem solving. Aggregate risk for future violence lessened in both treatment and comparison groups, although by a significantly greater degree for the comparison group. The aggressive behaviour of both groups reduced. Completion of the LMV-E conferred additional improvements in some facets of social problem solving and anger regulation. Neither group showed improvements in empathic responses, coping skills or problematic interpersonal style. Overall, these results suggest anger regulation, impulsivity and social problem solving are most amenable to change, that reductions in certain facets of these dynamic risk factors transpires with nonspecific psychiatric inpatient treatment, but that the LMV-E, a cognitive behavioural violence specific psychological treatment, confers greater change in some facets of social problem solving and anger regulation.

Accurate identification of criminal suspects by witnesses is vital for police investigations. Methods such as Cognitive\ud Interviewing techniques have been employed for this reason to enhance witness recall. In the current project, we\ud demonstrate the benefit of including a focused breathing exercise during face construction using the EvoFIT recognition-based facial composite system. Twenty participants, half of whom received the focused breathing instruction, each constructed a facial composite of an unfamiliar face seen the previous day. A further 40 participants attempted to name the resulting composites. A\ud significant increase was found in accurate identification of composites constructed by the focused breathing group.

This chapter presents a crisis model that has been regularly utilized through a variety of hostage situations. It proposes modifications in response to the presenting situation, both in regard to the perpetrators motivations, traits, and characteristics, which are important considerations as part of the negotiation process. The assessment and consequent management of a hostage situation can be varied in response to the motivation and presenting traits of the hostage taker. While a model of crisis negotiation can be utilized, it nonetheless requires modification in the context of the presenting situation. Crisis negotiation is considered to be an approach that focuses on the safe release of the hostages, the non-violent arrest of the perpetrator, and where efforts are made to calm a situation and to increase rational thought. Crisis negotiation focuses on establishing communication between the perpetrator, buying time in order to defuse emotions and enable planning.

Primary psychopathy traits correlate with sexual coercion, mate poaching, and lack of relationship exclusivity, reflecting instrumental use of others to fulfill personal desires. These sexual behaviors can also be explained by sexual thrill-seeking/impulsivity, or striving for relationship intimacy through fear of abandonment. Given that impulsive thrill-seeking and rejection-avoidance are related to secondary psychopathy and borderline personality disorder, respectively, this study is the first to consider the independent effects of psychopathic traits versus borderline personality disorder traits on sexual behaviors in a non-clinical mixed sex university student (N = 187) sample. Results broadly support our sexual behavior dissociation hypothesis: Unique relationships were identified between primary psychopathy traits and use of non-violent sexual coercive tactics (for women), reduced relationship exclusivity terms, and increased likelihood of mate poaching, whereas borderline personality disorder traits showed an independent relationship with increased likelihood of sexual coercion (for men) and having lost a partner through poaching. These opposite experiences of mate poaching, along with the unique association between psychologically manipulative sexual coercion and primary psychopathy, are considered here in terms of their ‘fit’ with clinical equivalents.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to consider the current knowledge in regard to females who engage in sexually harmful behaviour (HSB). Design/methodology/approach This is a brief paper, reviewing current literature. Findings This paper argues the continual limitations in fully understanding this population. However, it suggests the importance of progressing to discuss patterns of offending as opposed to typologies. Practical implications This argues the importance of effective formulation and consideration of patterns when understanding HSB in females. Originality/value This is a current brief review of the literature, summarising key thinking in this area, and some suggested ways forward for further progression.

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to provide an evaluation of a cognitive skills programme (Enhanced Thinking Skills) with adult prisoners. Design/methodology/approach A pre- and post-treatment design with 171 male prisoners, using self-report psychometric measures. Findings Significant differences were found in the direction expected. Clinical recovery using stringent methods was not indicated, although improvement/partial response was across a number of domains. Practical implications Expectations for treatment outcome for short-term interventions should be more realistic; cognitive skills programmes may be best considered as precursors to longer term therapies; treatment outcome should focus on improvement and not recovery. Originality/value This study represents the first prison study to distinguish between levels of positive change. It questions previous interpretations of treatment outcome.

Facial composite systems help eyewitnesses to show the appearance of criminals. However, likenesses created by unfamiliar witnesses will not be completely accurate, and people familiar with the target can find them difficult to identify. Faces are processed holistically; we explore whether this impairs identification of inaccurate composite images and whether recognition can be improved. In Experiment 1 (n = 64) an imaging technique was used to make composites of celebrity faces more accurate and identification was contrasted with the original composite images. Corrected composites were better recognized, confirming that errors in production of the likenesses impair identification. The influence of holistic face processing was explored by misaligning the top and bottom parts of the composites (cf. Young, Hellawell, & Hay, 1984). Misalignment impaired recognition of corrected composites but identification of the original, inaccurate composites significantly improved. This effect was replicated with facial composites of non-celebrities in Experiment 2 (n = 57). We conclude that, like real faces, facial composites are processed holistically: recognition is impaired because unlike real faces, composites contain inaccuracies and holistic face processing makes it difficult to perceive identifiable features. This effect was consistent across composites of celebrities and composites of people who are personally familiar. Our findings suggest that identification of forensic facial composites can be enhanced by presenting composites in a misaligned format.

Many crimes are committed where the only record of the event is in the memory of a witness or victim. Recovering a recognisable image of the offender’s face is then crucial for solving the crime. Traditionally, eyewitnesses describe the offender’s face and select individual facial features–eyes, hair, nose, etc.–to build a ‘composite’. This image is then published in the media so that someone can recognise it and phone the police with a name. Unfortunately, when tested using life-like procedures, this method rarely produces recognisable images. The current paper describes these systems for extracting such biometric information from witnesses. It also describes how useful they are and explores three such approaches for improving their effectiveness. Included are a new method to interview witnesses (a holistic-cognitive interview), a new method to present images to the public (animated composite) and a new system to construct the face (EvoFIT).

Purpose – The article assesses the impact of seven variables that emerge from forensic research on facial-composite construction and naming using contemporary police systems: EvoFIT, Feature and Sketch.\ud Design/methodology/approach – The paper involves regression- and meta-analyses on composite-naming data from 23 studies that have followed procedures used by police practitioners for forensic face construction. The corpus for analyses contains 6464 individual naming responses from 1,069 participants in 41 experimental conditions.\ud Findings – The analyses reveal that composites constructed from the holistic EvoFIT system were over four-times more identifiable than composites from 'Feature' (E-FIT and PRO-fit) and Sketch systems; Sketch was somewhat more effective than Feature systems. EvoFIT was more effective when internal features were created before rather than after selecting hair and the other (blurred) external features. Adding questions about the global appearance of the face (as part of the Holistic-Cognitive Interview, H-CI) gives a valuable improvement in naming over the standard face-recall Cognitive Interview (CI) for all three system types tested. The analysis also confirmed that composites were considerably less effective when constructed from a long (1 - 2 day) compared with a short (0 - 3.5 hour) retention interval.\ud Originality/value – Variables were assessed that are of importance to forensic practitioners who construct composites with witnesses and victims of crime. The main result is that EvoFIT using the internal-features method of construction is superior; an H-CI administered prior to face construction is also advantageous (cf. face-recall CI) for EvoFIT as well as for two further contrasting production systems.

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to investigate whether the presence of a whole-face context during facial composite production facilitates construction of facial composite images. Design/methodology/approach – In Experiment 1, constructors viewed a celebrity face and then developed a facial composite using PRO-fit software in one of two conditions: either the full-face was visible while facial features were selected, or only the feature currently being selected. The composites were named by different participants. The authors then replicated the study using a more forensically valid procedure: in Experiment 2 non-football fans viewed an image of a premiership footballer and 24 hours later constructed a composite of the face with a trained software operator. The resulting composites were named by football fans. Findings – In both studies, the presence of the facial context promoted more identifiable facial composites. Research limitations/implications – Current composite software was deployed in a conventional and unconventional way to demonstrate the importance of facial context. Practical implications – Results confirm that composite software should have the whole-face context visible to witnesses throughout construction. Although some software systems do this, there remain others that present features in isolation and these findings show that these systems are unlikely to be optimal. Originality/value – This is the first study to demonstrate the importance of a full-face context for the construction of facial composite images. Results are valuable to police forces and developers of composite software.

This work was supported in part by an award from the UK Economic and Social Research Council (RES-000-22-4150) to Dr Charity Brown and Dr Charlie Frowd The own-age bias (OAB) refers to recognition memory being more accurate for people of our own age than other age groups (e.g., Wright and Stroud, 2002). This paper investigated whether the OAB effect is present during construction of human faces (also known as facial composites, often for forensic/police use). In doing so, it adds to our understanding of factors influencing both facial memory across the life span as well as performance of facial composites. Participant-witnesses were grouped into younger (19-35 years) and older (51-80 years) adults, and constructed a single composite from memory of an own- or cross-age target face using the feature-based composite system PRO-fit. They also completed the shortened version of the glasgow face matching test (GFMT; Burton et al., 2010). A separate group of participants who were familiar with the relevant identities attempted to name the resulting composites. Correct naming of the composites revealed the presence of an OAB for older adults, who constructed moreidentifiable composites of own-age than cross-age faces. For younger adults, age of target face did not influence correct naming and their composites were named at the same level as those constructed by older adults for younger targets. Also, there was no reliable correlation between face perception ability and composite quality. Overall, correct naming was fairly good across the experiment, and indicated benefit for older witnesses for older targets. Results are discussed in terms of contemporary theories of OAB, and implications of the work for forensic practice. Publisher PDF

In 2006, with funding from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (£30k), we built a themed exhibit with the Sensation Science Centre in Dundee. In the main part of the exhibit, which was kitted out as a ‘police station’, a visitor would see a video of a man pretending to commit a crime and construct a composite of his face using a simplified version of our EvoFIT facial-composite system. Visitors were asked, using written and spoken prompts, to select faces from an array of alternatives, with selected items being ‘bred’ together, to allow a composite to be ‘evolved’. The exhibit then presented a picture of the man’s face alongside the evolved composite, example composites created by previous visitors and an average (‘morphed’) composite from the last four visitors. The exhibit took about five minutes for a user to complete and was accompanied by a ‘Research Lab’, a station which explained more of the underlying science: themes around evolution, computer-based generation of faces, forensic use of composites, etc. We expected the exhibit to last five years but, partly due to the robustness of the hardware, it remains today and is still popular.

Eyewitnesses are often invited to construct a facial composite, an image created of the person they saw commit a crime that is used by law enforcement to locate criminal suspects. In the current paper, the effectiveness of composite images was investigated from traditional feature systems (E-FIT and PRO-fit), where participants (face constructors) selected individual features to build the face, and a more recent holistic system (EvoFIT), where they ‘evolved' a composite by repeatedly selecting from arrays of complete faces. Further participants attempted to name these composites when seen as an unaltered image, or when blurred, rotated, linearly stretched or converted to a photographic negative. All of the manipulations tested reduced correct naming of the composites overall except (i) for a low level of blur, for which naming improved for holistic composites but reduced for feature composites, and (ii) for 100% linear stretch, for which a substantial naming advantage was observed. Results also indicated that both featural (facial elements) and configural (feature spacing) information was useful for recognition in both types of composite system, but highly-detailed information was more accurate in the feature-based than the holistic method. The naming advantage of linear stretch was replicated using a forensically more-practical procedure with observers viewing an unaltered ¬composite sideways. The work is valuable to police practitioners and designers of facial-composite systems.

Bringing a criminal to justice is a labour intensive process. In the current paper, we explored ways of reducing police time when constructing and identifying facial composites. In the former, we designed and evaluated a standalone version of the EvoFIT composite system. This was found to perform similarly to the full system that normally requires several hours of a police\ud officer’s time. In the latter, we built a small database of composites that could be used to search for matching identities. It was found that pixel intensity (texture) information was valuable for composites produced from a traditional feature-based system, but feature shape information for composites produced from the recognition-based EvoFIT. The results show promise for the automated construction and identification of facial composites.

Witnesses and victims of serious crime are often required to construct a facial composite, a visual likeness of a suspect’s face. The traditional method is for them to select individual facial features to build a face, but often these images are of poor quality. We have developed a new method whereby witnesses repeatedly select instances from an array of complete faces and a composite is evolved over time by searching a face model built using PCA. While past research suggests that the new approach is superior, performance is far from ideal. In the current research, face models are built which match a witness’s description of a target. It is found that such ‘tailored’ models promote better quality composites, presumably due to a more effective search, and also that smaller models may be even better. The work has implications for researchers who are using statistical modelling techniques for recognising faces.

Facial composites produced using traditional feature-based systems are notoriously hard to recognise. We have been developing a new more recognition-based system called EvoFIT that is performing better than other computerised approaches. In the current work, potential ways of improving performance even further were explored. It was found that asking the same person to construct two composites of a target face was successful in improving target identification. The data also found that composites constructed second were as identifiable as those constructed first, suggesting that the system does not appear to be interfering with a user's memory of a target face. The work also indicated that switching from a monochrome to a colour face model produced a slight decrement in performance. Lastly, the work replicated a previous finding that constructing a composite of a distinctive face produces a more identifiable rendition than a composite of a more average-looking face.

Facial composites are pictures of criminal faces normally produced from witnesses and victims of serious crime. Unfortunately, in spite of enhancements made to improve their quality, composites remain quite hard to recognise. Recent research has suggested however that a better representation of a target face can be obtained by constructing more than one composite of a face and then combining the individual attempts into a single morphed image. In the current work, we explore whether this morphing technique would generalise to composites constructed in a criminal investigation. To do this, three composites of an assailant produced by a single witness were morphed together and then evaluated. The result of four experiments suggested that the quality of the morphed image tended to be at least as good as the best individual composite, and in one task, that of similarity ratings with the hair occluded, the morph was superior. The data therefore provide further support for the suggestion that morphing would be a good procedure to use in a police investigation.

Facial composites remain an important tool for the apprehension of suspects. While research has led to an improvement in composite quality, contemporary systems rarely produce highly identifiable renditions in realistic studies. The current work manipulated the type of interview administered, as well as the composite face first presented to witnesses during construction. In the study, witnesses received a short exposure to a target face, then 2 days later were given a Cognitive Interview, a Holistic Interview (a set of personality ratings) or no interview. They then constructed a composite with the modern PROfit system in the normal way, by first setting the feature descriptors to obtain an ‘initial’ composite, or by proceeding from the ‘default’ composite, the first face displayed when PROfit is run. Although the composites were not named spontaneously, the result of an identification\ud task revealed an advantage for the Holistic Interview when used with an ‘initial’ composite.

EvoFIT, a computerized facial composite system is being developed as an alternative to current systems. EvoFIT faces are initially presented to a witness with random characteristics, but through a process of selection and breeding, a composite is "evolved." Comparing composites constructed with E-FIT, a current system, a naming rate of 10% was found for EvoFIT and 17% for E-FIT. Analysis revealed that target age was limiting factor for EvoFIT and a second study with age-appropriate targets visible during composite construction produced a naming rate similar to E-FIT. Two more-realistic studies were conducted that involved young target faces and two current systems (E-FIT and PROfit). Composites from both of these experiments were poorly named but a significant benefit emerged for EvoFIT.