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With little attention paid to the way barriers to learning are addressed, many students are unable to take advantage of instructional improvements. During 1998 a nationwide coalition of organizations was established which focused on how to enhance policy cohesion in the area of barriers to student learning. This report provides information for school boards to use at the local level in order to revisit policies and issues that are reducing the impact of programs and services designed to improve instruction. School boards are encouraged to take a critical step in implementing effective reform and restructuring in schools by adding an enabling component to their model. The discussion explores (1) why school boards need to increase their focus on addressing barriers to learning; (2) the benefits accrued from addressing barriers and building in implementation processes to enable learning; (3) rethinking the school board's committee structure to build in an enhanced focus on addressing barriers to student learning; (4) lessons learned from a major school district where the board has begun the process. Diagrams and charts are provided for model processes. Materials may be reproduced for school board use. (Contains 24 references.) (EMK)

A computational theory of analogical mapping is described, based on a set of constraints. The theory is embodied in a computer simulation that is applied to several examples, including psychological data on the mapping process., Prepared in collaboration with Princeton Univ., Princeton, NJ.

In training for skills, feedback about skill proficiency termed knowledge of results (KR) in the laboratory is critical to efficient learning. But, while various manipulations of KR in acquisitions can provide immediate benefits for performance, these may disappear in retention tests. In several paradigms, we show that (compared to feedback after each trial) making feedback less useful by giving it less frequently, or by summarizing or averaging it after several trials, degrades performance in acquisition, but produces superior learning as measured on retention or transfer tests. Preliminaries to a guidance theory are proposed on retention or transfer tests and are proposed to account for these effects. In this view, frequent feedback has various negative effects that degrade retention, such as (a) the encouragement of maladaptive short term corrections that disrupt response stability, and (b) the blockage of information processing activities that lead to the learning of error detection capabilities. Practical implications of these concepts for Army training procedures are discussed.

A computational theory of analogical mapping is described, based on a small set of constraints. The theory is embodied in a computer simulation that is applied to several examples, including psychological data on the mapping process. (AN)

This paper presents a new integrated artificial-intelligence model, Connecting Analogies With Rules and Explanations (CARE), which combines analogy, rule use, and the assessment of explanatory coherence. The model is applied to complex problem-solving and decision-making tasks in a variety of domains. (kar) p.3

The momentary workload that is imposed by a cognitive task upon the limited capacity human information-processing system appears to be accurately reflected in the momentary level of central nervous system activation. The utility of pupillometric methods of workload assessment is evaluated and several lines of experimental evidence relating activation and cognitive function are reviewed., Presented at the Annual Conference on Manual Control (12th).

The momentary workload that is imposed by a cognitive task upon the limited capacity human information-processing system appears to be accurately reflected in the momentary level of central nervous system activation. The utility of pupillometric methods of workload assessment is tested in an experiment involving the perception of four-digit visual displays of varying degrees of clarity. Pupillary dilations accurately reflect the cognitive load imposed by these displays, even in the absence of encoding errors., See also Rept. no. TR-22, ADA050036.

The current status of the concept of processing resource in cognitive psychology is first presented. Difficulties with a purely behavioral theory of processing resources are then raised. Next the use of a physiological measure, task-evoked changes in pupillary diameter, as a reflection of general processing load is then proposed and the relevant research is reviewed. The measure is shown to yield consistant results across a range of qualitatively different mental tasks. Finally, a hierarchical physiological theory of processing resources is proposed. (Author)

The results of a recent series of experiments on task-evoked pupillary responses are reviewed. These data form the basis for a physiological theory of processing resources and mental workload that has practical implications for pilot workload measurement. (Author)

The momentary workload that is imposed by a cognitive task upon the limited capacity human information-processing system appears to be accurately reflected in the momentary level of central nervous system activation. The utility of pupillometric methods of workload assessment is evaluated and several lines of experimental evidence relating activation and cognitive function are reviewed. (Author)

The objective in the DARPA Biocybernetics Program was to investigate the use of pupillary responses in assessing attentional demands on operators of complex man-machine systems. The results of this project were strongly positive: the task-evoked pupillary response has emerged as an excellent physiological indicator of mental workload., Sponsored in part by DARPA.

A series of experiments using pupillometric and electroencephalographic measures are reviewed. In each experiment, a close relation is observed between the psychological processes of attention and the physiological indications of increased phasic activation. From these data, the rudiments of an activation theory of attention are proposed. This study was also published in 'The Human Brain' by M. C. Wittrock, et al., 1977.

Using a classical auditory vigilance task, the relations between pupillometric indices of phasic central nervous system increases in activation and sustained attention were investigated. The amplitude of the task-invoked pupillary response declined as a function of time in task at a rate paralleling the performance decrement. These findings are discussed in the context of an activation theory of attentional processes. (Author)

Multidimensional scaling procedures provide a new means of studying spatial organization of brain electrical activity. A three-staged analysis process is proposed and tested on human electroencephalographic data. Simple, high accuracy solutions with anatomically meaningful dimensions were achieved. The procedure is not limited to the application presented, but is of general utility. (Author)

The idea that hierarchically higher brain processes require greater amounts of CNS vigilance or activation for their execution was tested in two experiments measuring pupillary dilation during the decision interval of a hierarchically-structured letter-matching task. Larger dilations indicative of increased activation were observed for letter pairs requiring higher levels of processing. (Author)

Under certain conditions the activity of large neurons within the brain may produce magnetic fields that are recordable at the scalp. Such recording has been termed magnetoencephalography, the magnetic counterpart of electroencephalography. In this paper, we describe some properties of brain magnetic activity and review the recent application of magnetoencephalography to the study of both normal human brain function and cases of cerebral pathology.

Forty-four female subjects met in groups of four, each in a separate booth, and were asked to report whether or not they received 'ESP images' which were presumably projected by a 'sender' in another room. Half the Ss, in a control condition, were unaware of the responses of others. For the others, in the experimental condition, a device similar to that utilized by Deutsch and Gerard gave each subject the impression that the other three Ss had received images on 23 of 30 trials. It was found that, particularly, in the control condition, reported reception of ESP images was a function of one's initial belief in ESP. The experimental situation was analyzed in terms of a theory of dissonance reduction., Report on Dynamics of Social Influence.

The Center for Computer-Based Behavioral Studies (CCBS) on the UCLA Campus is designed and is being developed to overcome a number of the methodological limitations blocking significant research advances in, and behavioral sciences' contributions to, the study of national policies and problems. The Center is designed around a time shared computer system that will make its informational and technological resources available to behavioral scientists and policy analysts located at widely dispersed university and government research centers, offering them research, policy planning, and educational tools. Plans are based on a number of highly integrated software system, hardware configurations, and laboratory design and equipment requirements. This document describes project developments covering the first three and one half years., See also AD0741766.

The report summarizes activities of a group of thirteen social psychologists from U. S. and European universities, who are informally confederate for the purpose of discussing and conducting joint investigations of human conflict. The research consists primarily of experimental studies of conflict between individuals and small groups. The broad goal of the group is to develop general theories of conflict dynamics and process which have applicability to conflicts between individuals, small groups, organizations and nations.

The document describes the plans for a Center for Computer-based Behavioral Studies (CCBS) on the UCLA Campus-its design, phased development, and use. The Center is designed around a time-shared computer system that will make its informational and technological resources available to behavioral scientists located at widely dispersed university and research centers, offering them new and powerful research, policy planning, and educational tools. The Center will provide resources that will allow behavioral scientists to extend their knowledge and basic research interests to the study and analysis of national policies and problems., Sponsored in part by Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency.

The Center for Computer-based Behavioral Studies (CCBS) on the UCLA Campus is designed and is being developed to overcome a number of the methodological limitations blocking significant research advances in, and behavioral sciences' contributions to, the study of national policies and problems. The Center is designed around a time shared computer system that will make its informational and technological resources available to behavioral scientists and policy analysts located at widely dispersed university and government research centers, offering them new and powerful research, policy planning, and educational tools. A number of these tools for studying and analyzing the behavior of individuals, groups, and social-political units are specifically capable of narrowing the enormous gap that continues to exist between the policy analyst and the behavioral scientist., Sponsored in part by the DARPA.

Twenty male triads participated in a cooperative task in which the type and patterns of dependency were varied systematically. 10 triads were in the bi-dependent condition where each S's performance maximally depended on the behavior and information supplied by his two co-workers; 10 triads were in the uni-dependent condition where performance depended on joint behavior by oneself and one co-worker as well as personal information from the other remaining team-mate. In each condition, two five-minute trials ended in inevitable failure. Hypotheses concerning the effects of dependency structure on individual and group behavior were supported: Dependency patterns were perceived correctly, communications were directed by dependency, bi-dependent as contrasted with uni-dependent triads communicated more, engaged in less task behavioral activities, experienced greater conflict and were less likely to blame a specific other person for the group's failure. Hypotheses concerning leadership development were not supported. Implications for studying dependency patterns among subgroups of individuals are considered. (Author), Supplement to Terminal rept. dated 1969, AD-692 123.

A representative sample of 776 husbands and wives in the Los Angeles area were interviewed regarding relative power of husbands and wives in various decision areas, following the basic procedures utilized by Blood and Wolfe in their 1959 study of wives only in Detroit. Essentially, the results paralleled those obtained by Blood and Wolfe, extending their findings to responses from husbands and in a different area. Husband power was greatest among oriental couples and least among Negro couples; it decreases with age, with length of marriage, and is less where a second marriage is involved; husband power increases with occupational status and educational level. The current study questions the effects of sampling of conjugal decision areas. With a somewhat more representative sampling of decisions, the distribution of power changes dramatically. Husband dominant families tend to show high authoritarianism scores for both husbands and wives. Least marital satisfaction is associated with wife dominance. (Author), Supplement to Terminal rept., AD-692 123. Report on Dynamics of Social Influence. Prepared in cooperation with Pontificia Universidade Catolica, Rio de Janeiro (Brazil).

A representative sample of 776 husbands and wives in the Los Angeles area were interviewed regarding the bases of power by which their spouses influenced their behavior, coercive, reward, referent, expert, and legitimate. The findings support the distinctions in power bases suggested by French and Raven (1959). There are systematic differences as a function of six of respondent, ethnicity, age, education, social class, domain of power, and personality. Referent power seemed to be most common, followed by expert. Coercion and reward were infrequent, though more commonly found in working class, Negro and Mexican-American, and lower educational respondents and among respondents dissatisfied with marriage. Expert power increased with valued companionship. Social power was very much a function of the domain of behaviors with respect to which influence was attempted. (Author), Supplement to Terminal rept. dated 1969, AD-692 123.

Research activities are reported on three topics within the area of conflict and conflict resolution: (1) Interpersonal bargaining. The individual's pre-interaction orientation to the bargaining is found to be complexly related to his expectations about other's orientations. Competitive individuals expect others to be competitive but cooperative individuals expect the entire range of orientation, from cooperative to competitive. The theoretical significance of this result is discussed. High incentives are found to have facilitative effects on the agreement process, but particularly so under conditions that are otherwise characterized by high conflict, viz, difficult bargaining problems and dyads with mixed or intermediate degrees of cooperative- competitive orientation. (2) The basis of ingroup-outgroup conflict: A rationale and procedure is presented for experimental investigation of the development of preferential behavior toward ingroup members as opposed to outgroup persons. (3) The effect of within-group relations on intergroup conflict: Pilot studies are described dealing with the effects of homogeneity vs. heterogeneity of attitudes within a group upon its relations with an outgroup, and the effects of the past history of treatment of a potentially disloyal and weaker subgroup (whether fair or unfair) upon the appeals made to it by the stronger subgroup for the purpose of preventing it from defecting to a competing outgroup., See also Technical rept. no. 2, AD726228 and Technical rept. no. 6, AD710413.

A center for computer-based behavioral studies (CCBS) is designed to overcome a number of methodological limitations blocking significant research advances in the study and analysis of national policies and problems. The center is to be designed around a time-shared computer system available to behavioral scientists and policy analysts at widely dispersed university and research centers. A number of tools for studying and analyzing the behavior of individuals, groups, and social-political units will help bridge the gap between the policy analyst and the behavioral scientist. Central to all the activities are plans based on highly integrated software systems., Sponsored in part by the DARPA.

The report summarizes the recent joint research activities of thirteen experimental social psychologists from U.S. and European universities, who are informally organized to plan and conduct studied on conflict between individuals and groups., See also Technical rept. no. 5, AD0705614. Sponsored in part by the DARPA.

The research deals with the accuracy and persuasiveness of communication between persons whose relationship is partly cooperative and partly competitive. Under these conditions, persons are likely not to be completely honest and open with one another but they are also likely to realize that full satisfaction of this respective interests is not possible without some degree of frank and accurate communication. Research on this situation has dealth with four topics: (1) Reactions to different degrees and patterns of deception in relationships of outcome and information dependence; (2) the perception of intentions under conditions of mixed motivation and imperfect communication; (3) reaching agreement in bargaining under different conditions of communication; and (4) the relation between one's own orientation to these mixed-motive relationships and beliefs about other persons' orientations. The results show the importance of both personal factors (e.g., sex differences, orientations to interpersonal relationships) and situational factors (incentives, type of relationship, amount of communication possible). Furthermore, these two types of factors are frequently found to be 'interactive' in their effects with, for example, the consequences of individual differences depending on the situational factors. (Author)

The original bibliography of articles and books relating to the small group is revised to include a total of 5156 items. The listings are alphabetical according to name of first author. Included is an index according to subject matter and an index by secondary authors. (Author), Supplement to Terminal report technical report no. 24, AD-692 123.

Subjects were asked to indicate whether or not they were receiving ESP messages, which were presumably sent for 12 successive transmissions. Half the subjects received shock when they indicated nonreception. It was predicted that shock would introduce conflict and 'nonreceivers' who accepted this shock would experience dissonance. This dissonance might be reduced by rejecting belief in ESP. A high latency of response for females indicated that they did indeed show this conflict, and these subjects did reduce their beliefs in ESP significantly more than did the other subjects. Nonshocked females and males in both conditions showed little conflict and less change in belief. (Author), Report on Dynamics of Social Influence.

The major focus of the research has been social influence in face-to-face situations. Considerable progress has been made in clarifying this research area with new directions suggested. The examination of relevant literature showed the need for more effective means of maintaining surveillance of a broad range of literature. Thus, part of the work has dealt with the establishment and continuation of a card bibliography system for studies of small groups, along with publication of periodic bibliographical summaries. A project centered on social influence on judgment led to a differentiation of six beliefs and attitudes, the development of a scale to measure this distinction, and the development and testing of a theory of the nature of social attitudes as related to beliefs. Some of the research suggested that interdependence of group members in attaining goals affected the manner of social influence. Thus an apparatus was developed to study patterns of interdependence in three-person groups, which has pointed to additional range of phenomena for investigation. (Author), See also Annual rept. no. 7, AD-626 590.

The document is concerned with research on the operations of balance and congruity principles in perception of persons and objects. A scale was devised to measure perception of political candidates. The measuring instrument was a semantic differential, similar to the ASO scale developed by Fiedler. The subjects rated eight political figures and the concept 'ideal president' on three separate occasions; before the Democratic convention, between the Democratic and the Republican conventions, and after the Republican convention. The dependent variable was a deviation, or 'D' score between the individual's evaluation of a particular candidate and his evaluation of 'ideal president.' (Author), Report on Dynamics of Social Influence.

Eight male and eight female subjects played a matrix form of the Prisoners' Dilemma game; an additional eight male and eight female subjects played a non-matrix form of the game. Each subject played for both high monetary reward (maximum joint payoff of $1.00 per trial for 15 trials) and low monetary reward (maximum joint payoff of $.10 per trial for 15 trails). Half of the subjects played first for low reward and then for high. The order was reversed for the other half of the subjects. It was predicted that there would be greater cooperation when the subjects were given (1) large rewards as compared to small, and (2) non-matrix presentation as compared to matrix. The results failed to confirm these hypotheses. In addition, there were no sex differences in style of play nor were there significant interactions among the three variables. However, the overall level of cooperative play was considerably higher than is usually encountered in these games, averaging 55%, and the usual over trials decline in the percentage of cooperation was not observed. The results of the present study were compared with the results of more recent experiments which manipulated the same variables, and suggestions for future research were discussed. (Author), See also AD-617 114.

The original bibliography of articles and books relating to the small group is revised to include a total of 3137 items. The listings are alphabetical according to name of first author. Included is an index according to subject matter and an index by secondary authors. (Author)

The report relates activity in the following: Bibliography of small group research; power relations in on-going groups; social influence in interdependent situations; prior behavior and belief as a reference for self-evaluation and performance., See also AD-609 110.