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Robot Trey autonomni je viličar napravljen za potrebe istovara i utovara kamiona. Njegova arhitektura sastoji se od velikog broja senzora i aktuatora koji se upravljaju PLC-om tvrtke Beckhoff. PLC garantira upravljanje u stvarnom vremenu dok navigacijsko računalo osigurava autonomne mogučnosti viličara. Predstavljena je alternativna vrsta komunikacije između PLC-a i Navigacijskog računala pomoću ADS protokola. Objašnjena je problematika i teorijska pozadina te izvedba ADSAPI-a. Prikazani su rezultati mjerenja čitanja ili pisanja pomoću ADS protokola te je napravljena usporedba sa CANOpen komunikacijom. Opisana je integracija koda u više slojeve software-a te njegova provjera točnosti. Robot Trey is an autonomous forklift made for unloading and loading trucks. Its architecture consists of a large number of sensors and actuators controlled by Beckhoff’s PLC. The PLC guarantees real-time control while the Navigation computer ensures the autonomous capabilities of the forklift. An alternative type of communication between the PLC and the Navigation computer using the ADS protocol is presented. The problem and theoretical background and performance of ADSAPI are explained. The results of reading or writing measurements using the ADS protocol are presented and a comparison with CANOpen communication is made. The integration of the code into multiple software layers and its accuracy verification are described.

L’equip E3-Team, fundat al 2014 i participant de la competició internacional MotoStudent Electric, necessita implementar una xarxa de comunicacions al seu prototip de motocicleta elèctrica per reduir els problemes del cablejat i millorar els resultats de la competició. Al 2022 es comença a desenvolupar una xarxa CAN i al 2023 sorgeix aquest projecte per continuar amb el procés i definir l’arquitectura de xarxa. En primer lloc, aquest projecte pretén estudiar totes les possibles vies d’implementació de la xarxa i les necessitats de l’equip. Per una banda, es defineix quins sistemes han de formar part de la xarxa i s’estudia el hardware que els pot compondre. Per altre, s’estudien les possibles característiques de la xarxa així com els protocols que es poden utilitzar. De tota la informació obtinguda, es filtren les opcions que no es poden implementar. A partir del resultat d’aquest estudi previ, es proposen varies arquitectures i, d’acord amb el líder de l’equip, s’escull el model que millor s’adapta a les seves necessitats. D’aquest model s’extreuen les característiques de la xarxa i dels dispositius participants. Seguidament, es dissenyen els esquemes elèctrics, es construeix la xarxa, es programen els dispositius participants i es valida el funcionament. La validació es du a terme abans d’instal·lar la xarxa a la motocicleta. Finalment, es presenten els resultats obtinguts, les conclusions, els pressuposts i les línies futures. E3-Team is a motorsport competition team of the international MotoStudent Electric competition since 2014. It would like to implement a communication network to reduce wiring issues and improve the competition results. On 2022, it began the development of a CAN network and in 2023 this project was created to continue this process and to define the network architecture. On the first place, this project pretends to study all the implementable options of the communications network, as well as the needs of the team. On one side, all the systems and devices that will be part of the network are defined. Also, the hardware available in the market that can compound the motorcycle devices is studied. On the other side, the network characteristics are studied, like the available communication protocols. All the options that are not implementable are filtered out. Based on the results of this study, different network architectures models are proposed and, considering the team leader’s opinion, one is chosen. The network characteristics and the hardware of the devices are obtained from the chosen model. Then, the electrical drawings are designed, the network is built, the devices are programmed, and the network is validated. The validation takes place before the final installation on the motorcycle. Finally, the implementation results are shown as well as the conclusions, the budget and the possible future developments.

We consider a system architecture where the communication between the remote devices and a central controller is done using a custom application protocol on top of CAN. CANopen is a communication protocol based on CAN that has proven to be open source and easily customizable for specific applications. The goal of this project is to replace the existing custom application protocol with CANopen to evaluate its feasibility and performance. The project has been divided into three different blocks to achieve the main objective. In the first one, the CANopen advantages against the custom protocol characteristics are exposed. The description of the firmware implementation and its validation is done in the second part. In the third block of the thesis, a comparison between the CANopen theoretical, the legacy protocol and the calculated throughput from the implementation is carried out. The CANopen feasibility in the application under study has been demonstrated considering that the protocol has been implemented and validated in an engine and in a custom remote device. Additionally, the performance evaluation indicates that CANopen outstands the legacy protocol, since it permits having a higher maximum throughput.

U ovom završnom radu napravljen je digitalni diferencijal za upravljanje pogonom električnog buggy vozila. U električno buggy vozilo za pogon ugrađena su dva BLDC motora. Budući da se u slučaju skretanja vozila unutarnji kotači kreću manjom putanjom od vanjskih kotača, potrebno je regulirati broj okretaja svakog motora zasebno kako bi se izbjeglo prevrtanje vozila u zavoju. Za rješavanje ovog problema razvijen je elektronički upravljački sustav baziran na apsolutnom optičkom enkoderu i Arduino platformi. Kut zakreta volana mjeri se apsolutnim optičkim enkoderom. Na temelju izmjerenog kuta volana, pomoću softverskog algoritma definiraju se razlike u broju okretaja lijevog i desnog pogonskog motora. Za komunikaciju između komponenti sustava korišten je komunikacijski standard CAN bus. Rezultati prikazani u ovom radu potvrđeni su mjerenjima na gotovom buggy vozilu., In this final paper, a digital differential was made to control the drive of an electric buggy vehicle. Two BLDC motors are installed in the electric buggy vehicle. Since in the case of turning the vehicle, the inner wheels move in a smaller trajectory than the outer wheels, it is necessary to regulate the speed of each engine separately to avoid overturning the vehicle in a turn. To solve this problem, an electronic control system based on an absolute optical encoder and the Arduino platform has been developed. The steering wheel angle is measured with an absolute optical encoder. Based on the measured steering wheel angle, the differences in the speed of the left and right drive motors are defined using a software algorithm. The CAN bus communication standard was used as the communication between system components. The results presented in this paper were confirmed by measurements on the finished buggy vehicle.

Based upon the CANopen communication protocol and the LabVIEW graphic programing procedures, this paper develops a closed-loop control architecture for a parallel three-axis (Delta) robotic arm mechanism. The accomplishments include prototyping a parallel three-axis robotic arm mechanism, assembling servomotors with associated encoders and gearsets, coding CANopen communication scripts for servomotor controllers and a host supervision GUI, coding forward/inverse kinematics scripts to compute the required servomotor rotations and the coordinates of a movable platform or the mechanism, coding tracking error compensation scripts for effective closed-loop griper control, and coding integration scripts to command and supervise the mechanism motion on the LabVIEW-based host GUI. During the development stage, this research designed and prototyped the parallel three-axis robotic arm mechanism based upon basic Delta robot kinematics. To control the mechanism effectively and accurately, this study implemented the CANopen communication protocol, which characterizes high speed and stable transmission. The protocol applies to the CANopen communication channels among the controllers and the host supervision GUI. On the LabVIEW development platform, the coded supervision GUI performs issuing/receiving messages to the CANopen-based controllers. The controllers excite the servomotors and actuate the parallel mechanism to track prescribed trajectories in a closed-loop control fashion. Meanwhile, an electromagnet attached to the movable platform of the robotic mechanism performs satisfactory picking/placing object actions.

In the heavy industry, high-quality inclinometer has been required in terms of accuracy, stability, and safety function for durable use in harsh environments. This paper proposes a robust orientation system for industrial inclinometer based on Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) accelerometer. An industrial motor (Vexta) is used as an oriental reference. The STM microcontroller (MCU) has the role of memorizing the inclination sent from the motor with the corresponding acceleration into a Lookup Table (LUT) by using Flash memory. The full redundancy included dual accelerometers and MCUs to enhance the safety function for the operating system via two inclination channels. The support from the Low-pass filter and the zero-offset compensation for temperature change contribute to the measurement precision. For industrial applications, Control Area Network open (CANopen) is used as an embedded network communication system. Both static and dynamic cases were tested to verify the behavior of the inclination sensor. The designed structure provides high efficiency for inclinometer performance with accuracy ±0.2° and the stability is always guaranteed thanks to safety function. The designed inclinometer was used for a real excavator to verify its stability and operating performance. The project was carried out at the ’Sensor System’ in Italy, an industrial company in the inclinometer field.

The use of CAN bus in space applications has increased during the last fifteen years. The need of standardizing not only the physical and link layers but also the higher layers protocol to meet spacecraft specific constraints or requirements, such as bus redundancy management, node monitoring and synchronization, has aroused. Therefore, a Working Group on CAN bus was stablished by ESA in collaboration with European Industry and Space Agencies, whose effort gave as result the publication of ECSS-E-ST-50-15C in 2015. This standard defines CAN protocol extensions for space use and specifies the optional use of the CANopen standard as higher layer to be used over CAN bus. The ExoMars Mission was chosen as spreadhead for the application of this standard. The present paper provides an experience report on this novel standardized use of CAN/CANopen in Space, in particular in the Raman Laser Spectrometer (RLS) that will be boarded into the Rover of ExoMars 2020. Even though RLS makes use of considerably long science telemetries (up to around 2Mbytes) CAN has been designated as its only data interface. We report on software, hardware and data transmission performances, as well as brief description on redundancy and synchronisation of this CAN implementation.

One key component in the modular design architecture is the in‐vehicle communication network, which allows Electronic Control Units, sensors, and other components to communicate with each other. The Controller Area Network (CAN) bus is the most widely used in‐vehicle communication network due to its simplicity. This chapter provides an introduction to the following in‐vehicle communication systems: CAN, FlexRay, and CANopen. FlexRay is meant to gradually replace CAN as the default in‐vehicle communication network. CANopen is a communication protocol and device profile specification for embedded systems used in automation. The CANopen communication protocol has support for network management, device monitoring, and communication between nodes, including a simple transport layer for message segmentation and desegmentation. CANopen distinguishes two basic data transmission mechanisms: the access to entries of the object dictionary through “Service Data Objects” and the exchange of process data through “Process Data Objects”.

U ovom radu bavimo se rekonstrukcijom kartezijevog koordinatnog robota. Potreba za samom rekonstrukcijom došla je zbog zastarjelosti opreme i korisničkog sučelja koji su na robotu bili implementirani nekoliko desetljeća i koji se danas više nigdje u industriji ne koriste. Kroz rad obuhvatit će se tri velike cjeline kroz koje je izvršena rekonstrukcija samog robota: I. Odabir nove opreme II. Implementiranje nove opreme na robota III. Programiranje robota i osposobljavanje njega za daljnji razvoj Kroz prvu cjelinu prikazat će se i opisati nova, ali i zastarjela oprema robota. Detaljno će se opisati specifikacije svake komponente, a na kraju će se usporediti sve komponente zastarjele opreme, koje se zamjenjuju, s novim komponentama. U drugoj cjelini opisat će se implementacija novih komponenti na postojeći robot. Prikazat će se njihovi položaji i objasniti razlog i način implementacije. Osim samog postavljanja komponenti potrebno je i elektronički ih spojiti. Sheme elektroničkog spajanja možete vidjeti u prilozima na kraju rada, a opis spajanja možete pročitati u poglavlju 3. Zadnji dio rekonstrukcije kartezijevog koordinatnog robota obuhvaća programiranje samog robota. U poglavljima 4 i 5 možete vidjeti detaljan opis i prikaz programa potrebnih kako bi se robot osposobio za rad, ali i za daljnji razvoj. Robot se nalazi u sklopu Laboratorija za projektiranje izradbenih i montažnih sustava, na Fakultetu strojarstva i brodogradnje, i nakon završetka rekonstrukcije koristi se za daljnje edukacijske svrhe. In this paper, we deal with the reconstruction of the Cartesian coordinate robot. The need for the reconstruction itself came about due to the obsolescence of the equipment and the user interface that had been implemented on the robot for several decades and are no longer used anywhere in the industry today. The work will cover three large chapters through which the reconstruction of the robot itself was carried out: I. Selection of new equipment II. Implementation of new equipment on the robot III. Programming the robot and preparing it for further development The first part will show and describe new and also outdated robot equipment. The specifications of each component will be described in detail, and at the end, all the components of the obsolete equipment, which are being replaced, will be compared with the new components. The second part will describe the implementation of new components on the existing robot. Their positions will be shown and the reason and method of implementation will be explained. In addition to installing the components, it is also necessary to connect them electronically. You can see the electronic connection schemes in the appendices at the end of the paper, and you can read the description of the connection in chapter 3. The last part of the reconstruction of the Cartesian coordinate robot includes the programming of the robot itself. In chapters 4 and 5, you can see a detailed description and presentation of the programs needed to prepare the robot for work, as well as for further development. The robot is located in the Laboratory for the design of manufacturing and assembly systems and after the completion of the reconstruction, it is used for further educational purposes.

CANopen is the most generic of all the standardized upper-layer protocols based on the Controller Area Network (CAN) protocol. It is present in many fields that use embedded applications, such as industrial robots, road vehicles and maritime vehicles. There are works that analyze the vulnerabilities present in the CAN protocol and that therefore affect CANopen. This work aims to develop a tool that uses the vulnerabilities discovered and that are still present today in the CAN bus, as well as different types of attacks that use the services and protocols offered and described by the CiA standard, which have to be implemented by all the devices that are intended to be connected to a CANopen network. The conclusions show how easy it is to carry out certain types of attacks, manipulating or replicating previously obtained messages. CANopen es el más genérico de todos los protocolos estandarizados de capa superior basados en el protocolo Controller Area Network (CAN). Está presente en multitud de campos que utilizan aplicaciones integradas, tales como robots industriales, vehículos de vía y vehículos marítimos. Existen trabajos que analizan las vulnerabilidades presentes en el protocolo CAN y que por lo tanto afectan a CANopen. En este trabajo se pretende desarrollar una herramienta que utilice las vulnerabilidades descubiertas y que siguen estando presentes hoy en día en el bus CAN, así como diferentes tipos de ataques que utilizan los propios servicios y protocolos ofrecidos y descritos por el estándar CiA, los cuales han de estar implementados por todos los dispositivos que se pretendan conectar a una red CANopen. Las conclusiones demuestran lo fácil que resulta realizar cierto tipo de ataques, manipulando o replicando los mensajes obtenidos previamente.

The RADBLAD project aims to demonstrate a step change in the accurate and fast in-situ non-destructive testing of wind turbine blades located off-shore using remote robotic deployment of X-ray radiography at great heights to image the full thickness of a blade. This paper describes the development of the robot system that deploys an X-ray source and detector around a blade by climbing up a turbine tower. Robot design is concentrated on developing a lightweight modular robot system easily transported to test sites and assembled quickly but capable of carrying a large payload. Four tower climbing crawlers drive a ring structure (constructed around the tower) up a wind turbine tower to place an X-ray source and digital detector on either side of a blade with long arms constituted by a bridge structure. The system is actuated by fourteen electric motors, six pneumatic actuators on the ring structure and sixteen pneumatic actuators on the crawlers. The focus of the paper is on describing the remote control of these actuators via a CANopen bus and a DC power bus that aims to minimize the size of umbilical power and communication cables.

Interest in the investigation of novel software and control algorithms for wearable robotics is growing. However, entry into this field requires a significant investment in a testing platform. This work introduces CANopen Robot Controller (CORC)—an open source software stack designed to accelerate the development of robot software and control algorithms—justifying its choice of platform, describing its overall structure, and demonstrating its viability on two distinct platforms.

Purpose This paper aims to analyze the key factors influencing the synchronization performance of distributed motion control system and to improve the synchronization performance for peripherals control of this system. Design/methodology/approach This paper deals with the software synchronization problems of distributed motion control system based on real-time Ethernet. First, combined with communication and control tasks, the key factors affecting synchronization performance of system are analyzed. Then, aiming at key factors and considering the synchronization of system bus, protocol conversion and task scheduling, a software synchronization method based on CANopen protocol and real-time Ethernet is proposed. Finally, the feasibility of this method is verified by establishing distributed motion control system and testing the synchronization performance of terminal control signals of slaves. Findings Based on this method, the results show that the synchronization accuracy for peripherals control of all slaves could be about 100 ns. Practical implications This research provides high-precision synchronization method, which could lay a foundation for the application of distributed motion control system in the field of assembly automation, such as multi-axis assembly robots control. Originality/value In distributed motion control system, many factors affect the synchronization performance. At present, there is no synchronization method that could comprehensively consider these factors. This paper not only analyzes the key factors influencing the synchronization performance of system but also proposes a synchronization method. Therefore, the method proposed in this paper has certain theoretical value and engineering significance.

A Brushless DC (BLDC) motors synchronous control system based on the CANopen (a communication protocol and device profile specification for automatic embedded systems) protocol is proposed in this paper. Multi-motor control is popular in robot or automation system, and the synchronization is an important issue, may be the key issue. The CANopen is a solution, due to Process Data Object (PDO) protocol. A Texas Instruments microcontroller TMS320F28069 is used as master to control six BLDC motors used as slave in this paper. The Master sends synchronization object to slaves’ base on the communication profile CAN (Controller Area Network) in Automation (CiA) 301 and the motion control profile CiA402. The system suns at 500 kbits/s and 1 Mbits/s transmission rate by setting PDO. The firmware details in this paper to show six-motor synchronous control.

With the penetration of real-time Ethernet in industry, the mechanism of CANopen protocol based on real-time Ethernet (COE) has been widely used in various distributed control systems. However, due to some defects of the existing COE mechanism, the functional integrity and security for communication could not be guaranteed. Thus, Safe-COE architecture is designed in this paper. First, safe communication problems in systems are analyzed. Then, based on the Security and Safety Modeling (SESAMO) method, safe building blocks for communication are designed and combining these building blocks with Safe-COE mechanism, a kind of Safe-COE communication architecture is proposed. Finally, communication performance is tested based on this architecture. The results show that based on the general Ethernet MII bus interface, the minimum communication cycle could reach 125 μs , and the minimum synchronization accuracy of peripherals control could be about 100 ns. Moreover, the formal modeling method is used to verify the safe integrity of this architecture. The results show that the architecture could meet related safe requirements of attack protection, data validation, disconnect monitoring, and state switching. Currently, there is no safe communication architecture for a distributed control system that could fully meet related standards and consider both functional safety and information security. It could provide a theoretical basis and solution for safe communication in the distributed control system.

Controller area network (CAN) was primarily employed as In-vehicle networks (IVNs). But this protocol has not been employed in industrial fieldbuses owing to its inadequate transmission speed and data rate. However, with the development of CANs with flexible data rates (CAN-FD) and CANopen, there has been increased interest regarding the application of CAN-based systems in industrial sites. Nevertheless, the CAN based protocol has the drawback of being vulnerable to unexpected wire breaking. Therefore, this paper proposes a redundancy method requiring 393ns delay time to address unexpected wire breakage in CAN-based systems.

The paper describes a robust technique implemented into the inclinometer based on Lookup Table (LUT) Filter. The filter memorizes the acceleration data corresponding to the angle of inclination as an ideal curve graph of Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) accelerometer. This technique works as not only acceleration calibration but also a powerful tool of inclination measurement. A high precision robust setup for inclinometer calibration and metrology was built. The proposed method is applied to two axis-inclinometer with a maximum error of 0.2 degrees. For industrial applications, Control Area Network open (CANopen) is used as an embedded network communication system. The experiment includes both static and dynamic procedures to justify the accuracy as well as the stability of the operating system. The project was carried out at the ‘Sensor System’ in Italy, which is an industrial company in the inclinometer field.

[ES] El objetivo del proyecto es integrar el control cinemático de un robot articulado VS060 de DENSO desde un PLC de KEBA usando CANopen over EtherCAT. Esto hará posible que en el futuro se puedan programar fácilmente robots de DENSO directamente desde el entorno de desarrollo integrado de KEBA, con sus librerías para control de movimiento y de robots y con KAIRO, su lenguaje robótico. Para conseguir esto, será necesario escribir archivos XML que describan las características del robot y sobrescribir varios métodos de la Drive InterFace de KEBA, principalmente los relacionados con la inicialización del drive y el escalado de las unidades del dispositivo a las del PLC. Para mostrar que la configuración funciona, se desarrollará una demo de un pick and place., [EN] The aim of the project is to integrate the kinematic control of a DENSO VS060 articulated robot in a KEBA PLC using CANopen over EtherCAT. This will make it possible to easily program DENSO robots directly from KEBA's integrated development environment in the future, with its libraries for motion and robot control and with KAIRO, its robotic language. In order to achieve this, it will be necessary to write XML files describing the characteristics of the robot and to overwrite several methods of KEBA's Drive InterFace, mainly the ones related to the drive initialization and the scaling of the device units to those of the PLC. To show that the configuration works, a pick and place demo will be developed.

An X–Y platform synchronous control with CANopen is proposed in this paper, and the platform includes a three-phase stepping motor, motor controller and driver. The Controller Area Network (CAN) Bus is adopted for communication, and the CANopen protocol is also implemented for control. Moreover, both CiA301 standard for communication and CiA402 standard for motor control are support. The interpolation mode in CiA402 is used for synchronized control of the X–Y platform, however, Cross-Coupling Control (CCC) is proposed to improve the precision of synchronized control. The experimental results show the proposed CCC perform higher accuracy than interpolation control. The phenomenon of more position error when higher speed is also discussed.

In Internet of Everything (IoE) or heterogeneous IoTs, there exist a plethora of protocols and inter-connected Internet of Things. For every network protocol, the complexity of communication and wiring at the physical interface becomes more and more challenging. In this work, an automated interface detector (or gateway) is proposed using a novel port, that scans the physical layer parameters, interpolates with Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association (EIA/TIA) standards specification parameters and compares packet format initiates communication. In this approach, line impedance, voltage, current, SNR, power, and network capacity are used as the coefficients of merit for physical layer detection by interpolation and averaging methods. Standard packet architectures are the key parameters for communication initiation and network fastening at both ends of the data line. The serial protocols such as CANopen, Ethernet, UART, I2C, and SPI are tested and verified. Results have shown that the proposed system can detect any physical layer interface and initiate a data network regardless of connector pinouts and interface wiring complexities. The implementation results exhibit a fertile resource for redundancy handling in-line parameters of data networks.

The ATLAS collaboration will install a new inner tracker (ITk) during the phase II upgrade. The innermost part will be a pixel detector. A new Detector Control System (DCS) is being developed to provide control and monitoring of the ITk pixel detector. The MoPS is a CANopen based Application Specific Integrated Circuit foreseen to independently monitor a serial power chain. The final chip is required to be radiation hard up to an ionizing dose of 500 Mrad. This paper focuses on the feasibility of combining low supply voltage custom ASICs found in radiation detection applications and commercial CAN bus equipment. It proposes a CAN physical layer which is operated at 3.6 V and intended to drive a CAN bus of 60 m length at a data rate of 125 kbit/s. In addition voltage regulators with an input voltage of 5 V, output voltages of 3.6 V, 2.4 V and 1.2 V and a load current capability of 200mA have been developed to power the chip via the CAN bus.

En el presente documento se expone el desarrollo del firmware de una centralita de control con aplicación quickshifter (cambio rápido o cambio manual sin embrague) para una motocicleta eléctrica de competición. El firmware es ejecutado por un microcontrolador i.Mx RT1020 de la familia ARM Cortex-M7, y fabricado por NXP, montado en una placa de evaluación comercial, en lenguaje C y haciendo uso de las librerías oficiales que permiten la aplicación de FreeRTOS (Free Real Time Operating System), un sistema operativo a tiempo real de uso gratuito y enfocado para sistemas embebidos. Las funciones generales de este sistema son la lectura y procesado de las señales del acelerador, el indicador de cambio de marchas y algunos pulsadores, para posteriormente transmitir y recibir la información necesaria al bus de CAN, del cual también penderá el controlador del motor eléctrico o inversor. Se explica, también, de forma técnica como se han configurado y programado los tres periféricos, utilizados, del microcontrolador: CAN (Controller Area Network), ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) y GPIO (General Propose Input/Output). Por otro lado, se expondrán las nociones básicas del protocolo de comunicaciones CANbus, en concreto del protocolo oficial CANOpen, que permitan seguir el hilo del proyecto sin inconvenientes. También se introducirán las bases necesarias acerca de los FreeRTOS y más en detalle de los recursos utilizados, así como las task, timers, queues o notifiers. Tanto a nivel firmware como hardware se explicarán las distintas medidas de seguridad que se han adoptado en cuanto a la posible ruptura o fallo del cableado. Para finalizar se presentará el montaje funcional en entorno de laboratorio, donde se podrá observar como la consigna de par enviada por CANbus varía según la señal leída del acelerador, los parámetros de configuración cambiados mediante los pulsadores o por la petición de cambio de marchas, haciendo prescindible el montaje de un sistema de embrague en una motocicleta con distintas marchas de accionamiento manual. Esta aplicación marca la diferencia en entornos de competición, donde la diferencia de tiempos entre los clasificados es de pocos milisegundos.