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Medically assisted reproduction (MAR) plays an increasingly important role in the realization of fertility intentions in advanced societies, yet the evidence regarding MAR-conceived children’s longer-term well-being remains inconclusive. Using register data on all Finnish children born in 1995–2000, we compared a range of social and mental health outcomes among MAR- and naturally conceived adolescents in population-averaged estimates, and within families who have conceived both through MAR and naturally. In baseline models, MAR-conceived adolescents had better school performance and the likelihood of school dropout, not being in education or employment, and early home-leaving were lower than among naturally conceived adolescents. No major differences were found in mental health and high-risk health behaviours. Adjustment for family sociodemographic characteristics attenuated MAR adolescents’ advantage in social outcomes, while increasing the risk of mental disorders. The higher probability of mental disorders persisted when comparing MAR adolescents to their naturally conceived siblings. On average, MAR adolescents had similar or better outcomes than naturally conceived adolescents, largely due to their more advantaged family backgrounds, which underscores the importance of integrating a sociodemographic perspective in studies of MAR and its consequences.

Male partner involvement (MPI) during the prenatal and postnatal periods has been proven to have a beneficial effect on infant development. Infants born to HIV seropositive mothers with lacking or no prenatal and postnatal male partner support may be at a higher risk for adverse developmental outcomes. This study examined the effect of MPI on cognitive, communicative, fine, and gross motor development in 160 infants born to HIV seropositive mothers attending Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT) services in rural South Africa. Results of the bivariate logistic regression showed that both prenatal (OR 1.13; 95% CI 1.01, 1.26; p

Breastfeeding (duration) can be positively associated with infant growth outcomes as well as improved cognitive functions during childhood and later life stages. (Prolonged) exposure to optimal lipid quantity and quality, i.e., the supramolecular structure of lipids, in mammalian milk, may contribute to these beneficial effects through nutritional early-life programming. In this pre-clinical study, we exposed male C57BL/6J mice from post-natal Days 16 to 42 (i.e., directly following normal lactation), to a diet with large lipid droplets coated with bovine milk fat globule membrane-derived phospholipids, which mimic more closely the supramolecular structure of lipid droplets in mammalian milk. We investigated whether exposure to this diet could affect growth and brain development-related parameters. As these outcomes are also known to be affected by the post-weaning social environment in mice, we included both individually housed and pair-wise housed animals and studied whether effects of diet were modulated by the social environment. After Day 42, all the animals were fed standard semi-synthetic rodent diet. Growth and body composition were assessed, and the mice were subjected to various behavioral tests. Individual housing attenuated adolescent growth, reduced femur length, and increased body fat mass. Adult social interest was increased due to individual housing, while cognitive and behavioral alterations as a result of different housing conditions were modest. The diet increased adolescent growth and femur length, increased lean body mass, reduced adolescent anxiety, and improved adult cognitive performance. These effects of diet exposure were comparable between individually and socially housed mice. Hence, early life exposure to a diet with lipid droplets that mimic the supramolecular structure of those in mammalian milk may improve adolescent growth and alters brain function in both socially and individually housed mice. These findings suggest that lipid structure in infant milk formula may be a relevant target for nutritional solutions, targeting both healthy infants and infants facing growth challenges.

OBJECTIVES: A major issue in the rehabilitation of children with cochlear implants (CIs) is unexplained variance in their language skills, where many of them lag behind children with normal hearing (NH). Here, we assess links between generative language skills and the perception of prosodic stress, and with musical and parental activities in children with CIs and NH. Understanding these links is expected to guide future research and toward supporting language development in children with a CI. DESIGN: Twenty-one unilaterally and early-implanted children and 31 children with NH, aged 5 to 13, were classified as musically active or nonactive by a questionnaire recording regularity of musical activities, in particular singing, and reading and other activities shared with parents. Perception of word and sentence stress, performance in word finding, verbal intelligence (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) vocabulary), and phonological awareness (production of rhymes) were measured in all children. Comparisons between children with a CI and NH were made against a subset of 21 of the children with NH who were matched to children with CIs by age, gender, socioeconomic background, and musical activity. Regression analyses, run separately for children with CIs and NH, assessed how much variance in each language task was shared with each of prosodic perception, the child's own music activity, and activities with parents, including singing and reading. All statistical analyses were conducted both with and without control for age and maternal education. RESULTS: Musically active children with CIs performed similarly to NH controls in all language tasks, while those who were not musically active performed more poorly. Only musically nonactive children with CIs made more phonological and semantic errors in word finding than NH controls, and word finding correlated with other language skills. Regression analysis results for word finding and VIQ were similar for children with CIs and NH. These language skills shared considerable variance with the perception of prosodic stress and musical activities. When age and maternal education were controlled for, strong links remained between perception of prosodic stress and VIQ (shared variance: CI, 32%/NH, 16%) and between musical activities and word finding (shared variance: CI, 53%/NH, 20%). Links were always stronger for children with CIs, for whom better phonological awareness was also linked to improved stress perception and more musical activity, and parental activities altogether shared significantly variance with word finding and VIQ. CONCLUSIONS: For children with CIs and NH, better perception of prosodic stress and musical activities with singing are associated with improved generative language skills. In addition, for children with CIs, parental singing has a stronger positive association to word finding and VIQ than parental reading. These results cannot address causality, but they suggest that good perception of prosodic stress, musical activities involving singing, and parental singing and reading may all be beneficial for word finding and other generative language skills in implanted children.

BackgroundThe jumping to conclusions (JTC) reasoning bias and decreased working memory performance (WMP) are associated with psychosis, but associations with affective disturbances (i.e. depression, anxiety, mania) remain inconclusive. Recent findings also suggest a transdiagnostic phenotype of co-occurring affective disturbances and psychotic experiences (PEs). This study investigated whether JTC bias and decreased WMP are associated with co-occurring affective disturbances and PEs.MethodsData were derived from the second Netherlands Mental Health Survey and Incidence Study (NEMESIS-2). Trained interviewers administered the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) at three time points in a general population sample (N = 4618). The beads and digit-span task were completed to assess JTC bias and WMP, respectively. CIDI was used to measure affective disturbances and an add-on instrument to measure PEs.ResultsCompared to individuals with neither affective disturbances nor PEs, the JTC bias was more likely to occur in individuals with co-occurring affective disturbances and PEs [moderate psychosis (1–2 PEs): adjusted relative risk ratio (RRR) 1.17, 95% CI 0.98–1.41; and high psychosis (3 or more PEs or psychosis-related help-seeking behaviour): adjusted RRR 1.57, 95% CI 1.19–2.08], but not with affective disturbances and PEs alone, whereas decreased WMP was more likely in all groups. There was some evidence of a dose–response relationship, as JTC bias and decreased WMP were more likely in individuals with affective disturbances as the level of PEs increased or help-seeking behaviour was reported.ConclusionThe findings suggest that JTC bias and decreased WMP may contribute to a transdiagnostic phenotype of co-occurring affective disturbances and PEs.

Several chemical compounds are resistant to degradation and end up in the food chain. One group of these chemicals is poly-chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) which are used as flame retardants and plasticizers. Although PCBs were banned several decades ago, PCBs are still found in environmental media, including in the body of humans. PCBs are transferred from mother to fetus via the placenta during pregnancy. Considering that the prenatal period is a sensitive period during which essential developmental processes take place, exposure to environmental chemicals might have considerable and permanent consequences for outcomes in later life.The aim of this review is to provide an update on the latest insights on the effects of prenatal exposure to PCBs on neurological, sexual and pubertal development in children. We give an overview of recent literature, and discuss it in the light of the findings in a unique Dutch birth cohort, with data on both neurological and pubertal development into adolescence.The findings in the studies included in this review, together with the findings in the Dutch cohort, demonstrate that prenatal exposure to PCBs can interfere with normal child development, not only during the perinatal period, but up to and including adolescence. Higher prenatal exposure to PCBs was found to be both negatively and positively associated with neurodevelopmental outcomes. Regarding pubertal development, higher prenatal PCB exposure was found to be associated with more advanced pubertal development, also in the Dutch cohort, whereas other studies also found delayed pubertal development. These findings raise concern regarding the effects of man-made chemical compounds on child development. They further contribute to the awareness of how environmental chemical compounds can interfere with child development and negatively influence healthy ageing.

BACKGROUND: Evolving evidence suggests that vegetation surrounding schools is beneficial to children's academic performance, however vehicle emissions are adversely related. Little is known about concurrent impacts of vegetation and vehicle emissions on academic performance. This study examined associations of vegetation and vehicle emissions near urban Australian primary schools with children's academic performance.METHODS: Vegetation within schoolyards and Euclidean buffers (100, 300 and 1000m) was assessed using the Normalised Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Weighted road density (WRD) was computed for each buffer as a vehicle emissions proxy. Cross-sectional associations and mediating pathways between vegetation and vehicle emissions and standardised average academic scores in Literacy (Reading, Writing, Language Conventions) and Mathematics for Grades 3 and 5 attending 3745 primary schools in urban areas (population ≥10,000) of Australia in 2018 were assessed using generalised linear models adjusted for school socio-educational status.RESULTS: Significant positive associations were found between vegetation and Reading in Grades 3 and 5, Mathematics in Grade 3 (all buffers), Writing in Grade 3 (100 and 300m), and Language Conventions in Grades 3 and 5 (most buffers). Increased vehicle emissions were negatively associated with Reading and Mathematics in Grades 3 and 5 (most buffers), and Language Conventions in Grade 3 (300 and 1000m) and Grade 5 (100-1000m). Within 300m, vehicle emissions partially mediated associations between vegetation with Mathematics in Grade 3 (proportion mediated, 21%), Reading and Language Conventions in Grade 5 (15%, 37% respectively).CONCLUSIONS: Our findings contribute to growing evidence that vegetation around primary schools is associated with higher achievement in Literacy and Mathematics, with partial mediation by vehicle emissions. Future studies should conduct on-site measurement of vehicle emissions and audit vegetation around schools to confirm findings and inform urban/school planners and school leaders on designing and modifying school environments to support learning.

Capturing developmental and learning-induced brain dynamics is extremely challenging as changes occur interactively across multiple levels and emerging functions. Different levels include the (social) environment, cognitive and behavioral levels, structural and functional brain changes, and genetics, while functions include domains such as math, reading, and executive function. Here, we report the insights that emerged from the workshop “Capturing Developmental Brain Dynamics”, organized to bring together multidisciplinary approaches to integrate data on development and learning across different levels, functions, and time points. During the workshop, current main gaps in our knowledge and tools were identified including the need for: (1) common frameworks, (2) longitudinal, large-scale, multisite studies using representative participant samples, (3) understanding interindividual variability, (4) explicit distinction of understanding versus predicting, and (5) reproducible research. After illustrating interactions across levels and functions during development, we discuss the identified gaps and provide solutions to advance the capturing of developmental brain dynamics. ispartof: NPJ SCIENCE OF LEARNING vol:6 issue:1 ispartof: location:England status: published

Early life stages are vulnerable to environmental hazards and present important windows of opportunity for lifelong disease prevention. This makes early life a relevant starting point for exposome studies. The Advancing Tools for Human Early Lifecourse Exposome Research and Translation (ATHLETE) project aims to develop a toolbox of exposome tools and a Europe-wide exposome cohort that will be used to systematically quantify the effects of a wide range of community- and individual-level environmental risk factors on mental, cardiometabolic, and respiratory health outcomes and associated biological pathways, longitudinally from early pregnancy through to adolescence. Exposome tool and data development include as follows: (1) a findable, accessible, interoperable, reusable (FAIR) data infrastructure for early life exposome cohort data, including 16 prospective birth cohorts in 11 European countries; (2) targeted and nontargeted approaches to measure a wide range of environmental exposures (urban, chemical, physical, behavioral, social); (3) advanced statistical and toxicological strategies to analyze complex multidimensional exposome data; (4) estimation of associations between the exposome and early organ development, health trajectories, and biological (metagenomic, metabolomic, epigenetic, aging, and stress) pathways; (5) intervention strategies to improve early life urban and chemical exposomes, co-produced with local communities; and (6) child health impacts and associated costs related to the exposome. Data, tools, and results will be assembled in an openly accessible toolbox, which will provide great opportunities for researchers, policy-makers, and other stakeholders, beyond the duration of the project. ATHLETE'S results will help to better understand and prevent health damage from environmental exposures and their mixtures from the earliest parts of the life course onward. This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement number 874583—the Advancing Tools for Human Early Lifecourse Exposome Research and Translation (ATHLETE) project. This publication reflects only the authors’ view and the European Commission is not responsible for any use that may be made of the information it contains. Dr. Dadvand is funded by a Ramón y Cajal fellowship (RYC2012-10995) awarded by the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Finance. Drs. Casas and Guxens are funded by the Instituto de Salud Carlos III (MS16/00128, CPII18/00018). Drs. Chatzi and Conti were supported by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (R21ES029681, R01ES029944, R01ES030364, R01ES030691, and P30ES007048). Additional funding from National Institutes of Health supported Dr. Conti (P01CA196569, R01CA140561) and Dr. Stratakis (P30DK048522). Investigators Drs. McEachan and Wright receive funding from the National Institute for Health Research under its Applied Research Collaboration Yorkshire and Humber. Dr. Jaddoe received funding from a Consolidator Grant from the European Research Council (ERC-2014-CoG-648916). Dr. Duijts received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 co-funded programme European Research Area Net on Biomarkers for Nutrition and Health (European Research Area Healthy Diet for a Healthy Life) (Early life programming of childhood health project [number 696295; 2017], ZonMW, The Netherlands [number 529051014; 2017]). Dr. Guxens received funding from the Agence Nationale de Securite Sanitaire de l’Alimentation de l’Environnement et du Travail (EST-18 RF-25). The views expressed are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the National Institute for Health Research or the Department of Health and Social Care.

The 22q11.2 deletion syndrome (22q11DS) is associated with a 20-25% risk of schizophrenia. In a cohort of 962 individuals with 22q11DS, we examined the shared genetic basis between schizophrenia and schizophrenia-related early trajectory phenotypes: sub-threshold symptoms of psychosis, low baseline intellectual functioning and cognitive decline. We studied the association of these phenotypes with two polygenic scores, derived for schizophrenia and intelligence, and evaluated their use for individual risk prediction in 22q11DS. Polygenic scores were not only associated with schizophrenia and baseline intelligence quotient (IQ), respectively, but schizophrenia polygenic score was also significantly associated with cognitive (verbal IQ) decline and nominally associated with sub-threshold psychosis. Furthermore, in comparing the tail-end deciles of the schizophrenia and IQ polygenic score distributions, 33% versus 9% of individuals with 22q11DS had schizophrenia, and 63% versus 24% of individuals had intellectual disability. Collectively, these data show a shared genetic basis for schizophrenia and schizophrenia-related phenotypes and also highlight the future potential of polygenic scores for risk stratification among individuals with highly, but incompletely, penetrant genetic variants.Polygenic risk scores are nearing a level of differentiation required for their clinical utility in risk prediction in populations with high-risk rare pathogenic genetic variants.

This article reconsiders the role of social origin in health selection by examining whether parental education moderates the association between early health and educational attainment and whether health problems mediate the intergenerational transmission of education. We used longitudinal register data on Finns born in 1986–1991 (n = 352,899). We measured the completion of secondary and tertiary education until age 27 and used data on hospital care and medication reimbursements to assess chronic somatic conditions, frequent infections, and mental disorders at ages 10–16. We employed linear probability models to estimate the associations between different types of health problems and educational outcomes and to examine moderation by parental education, both overall in the population and comparing siblings with and without health problems. Finally, we performed a mediation analysis with g-computation to simulate whether a hypothetical eradication of health problems would weaken the association between parental and offspring education. All types of health problems reduced the likelihood of secondary education, but mental disorders were associated with the largest reductions. Among those with secondary education, there was further evidence of selection to tertiary education. High parental education buffered against the negative impact of mental disorders on completing secondary education but exacerbated it in the case of tertiary education. The simulated eradication of health problems slightly reduced disparities by parental education in secondary education (up to 10%) but increased disparities in tertiary education (up to 2%). Adolescent health problems and parental education are strong but chiefly independent predictors of educational attainment. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1007/s13524-020-00919-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Background Exposure to green space has beneficial effects on several cognitive and behavioral aspects. However, to our knowledge, no study addressed intelligence as outcome. We investigated whether the level of urbanicity can modify the association of residential green space with intelligence and behavior in children. Methods and findings This study includes 620 children and is part of the East Flanders Prospective Twin Survey (EFPTS), a registry of multiple births in the province of East Flanders, Belgium. Intelligence was assessed with the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R) in 620 children (310 twin pairs) between 7 and 15 years old. From a subset of 442 children, behavior was determined based on the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). Prenatal and childhood residential addresses were geocoded and used to assign green space indicators. Mixed modeling was performed to investigate green space in association with intelligence and behavior while adjusting for potential confounding factors including sex, age, parental education, neighborhood household income, year of assessment, and zygosity and chorionicity. We found that residential green space in association with both intelligence and behavior in children was modified by the degree of urbanicity (p < 0.001). In children living in an urban environment, multivariable adjusted mixed modeling analysis revealed that an IQR increment of residential green space (3,000-m radius) was associated with a 2.6 points (95% CI 1.4–3.9; p < 0.001) higher total intelligence quotient (IQ) and 2.0 points (95% CI −3.5 to −0.4; p = 0.017) lower externalizing behavioral score. In children residing in a rural or suburban environment, no association was found. A limitation of this study is that no information was available on school location and the potential for unmeasured confounding (e.g., time spend outdoors). Conclusions Our results indicate that residential green space may be beneficial for the intellectual and the behavioral development of children living in urban areas. These findings are relevant for policy makers and urban planners to create an optimal environment for children to develop their full potential., Esmée M Bijnens and colleagues reveal beneficial effects of a green environment on a child's development and behaviour., Author summary Why was this study done? This study examines residential surrounding green space in association with intelligence and behavior in a study area that includes a spectrum of urban to rural environments. Previous studies mainly focused on urban areas, whereas only a few studies have explored differences in the effect of green space on cognition in nonurban settings. Understanding the health disparities that exist between urban and rural environments is essential for maintaining and improving human well-being in a rapidly urbanizing world. What did the researchers do and find? This longitudinal birth cohort study of twins assessed intelligence in 620 children between 7 and 15 years old. Our results indicate that residential green space is especially beneficial for intellectual and behavioral development of children living in an urban environment. What do these findings mean? We show that low residential green space in urban children is associated with a “shift” towards a higher incidence of low IQ demonstrating the public health impact of our findings.

Physical activity and motor competence (MC) have been considered to be closely related and prevent childhood obesity. The aim of the study was two-fold: to examine MC measured with two different tools in relation to individual, family, and environmental correlates and to investigate gender differences in MC. The Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) was administered to three- to seven-year-old children (n = 945), while the K&ouml, rperkoordinationstest f&uuml, r Kinder (KTK) was also used for five- to seven-year-old children (n = 444). The parent questionnaire (n = 936) included questions about individual (e.g., participation in organized sports), family (e.g., parents&rsquo, education level), and environmental (e.g., access to sports facilities) correlates. The children&rsquo, s temperament was assessed using the Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory (CCTI) questionnaire. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and linear mixed-effects regression models. The regression models explained 57% and 38% of the variance in TGMD-3 and KTK, respectively. Individual correlates, including older age, more frequent participation in sports, and specific temperament traits of activity and attention span-persistence, were the strongest predictors for better MC. Small gender differences were found in both assessment tools, albeit in a different manner. In conclusion, socioecological correlates of MC in young children are multidimensional, and individual correlates appear to be the most important predictors of MC. Importantly, the correlates can differ according to the MC assessment tools.

In the first 2-3 years of life, the gut microbiota of infants quickly becomes diverse and rich. Disruptions in the evolving gut microbiota during this critical developmental period can impact brain development. Communication between the microbiota, gut and brain is driven by hormonal and neural regulation, as well as immune and metabolic pathways, however, our understanding of how the parallel developments that may underlie this communication are limited. In this paper, we review the known associations between the gut microbiota and brain development and brain function in early life, speculate on the potential mechanisms involved in this complex relationship and describe how nutritional intervention can further modulate the microbiota and, ultimately, brain development and function.

In the first 2–3 years of life, the gut microbiota of infants quickly becomes diverse and rich. Disruptions in the evolving gut microbiota during this critical developmental period can impact brain development. Communication between the microbiota, gut and brain is driven by hormonal and neural regulation, as well as immune and metabolic pathways, however, our understanding of how the parallel developments that may underlie this communication are limited. In this paper, we review the known associations between the gut microbiota and brain development and brain function in early life, speculate on the potential mechanisms involved in this complex relationship and describe how nutritional intervention can further modulate the microbiota and, ultimately, brain development and function.

The neurocognitive development of infants can be positively associated with breastfeeding exclusivity and duration. Differences in dietary lipid quality between human milk and infant milk formula may contribute to this effect. In this review, we describe some of the known differences between human milk and infant milk formula in lipid quality, including fatty acid composition, complex lipids in the milk fat globule membrane as well as the physical properties of lipids and lipid globules. We describe some of the underlying mechanism by which these aspects of lipid quality are thought to modulate infant brain development such as differences in the supply and/or the bioavailability of lipids, lipid bound components and peripheral organ derived neurodevelopmental signals to the infant brain after ingestion and on longer term.

BackgroundLower intelligence quotient (IQ) has frequently been reported in patients with schizophrenia. However, it is unclear whether IQ declines (further) after illness onset and what the familial contribution is to this change. Therefore, we investigate IQ changes during the course of illness in patients with non-affective psychosis, their siblings and controls.MethodsData are part of the longitudinal Genetic Risk and Outcome of Psychosis (GROUP) study in the Netherlands and Belgium. Participants underwent three measurements, each approximately 3 years apart. A total of 1022 patients with non-affective psychosis [illness duration: 4.34 (s.d.= 4.50) years], 977 of their siblings, and 565 controls had at least one measure of IQ (estimated from four subtests of the WAIS-III).ResultsAt baseline, IQ was significantly lower in patients (IQ = 97.8) and siblings (IQ = 108.2;p< 0.0001) than in controls (IQ = 113.0;p< 0.0001), and in patients as compared with siblings (p< 0.0001). Over time, IQ increased in all groups. In siblings, improvement in IQ was significantly more pronounced (+0.7 points/year) than in patients (+0.5 points/year;p< 0.0001) and controls (+0.3 points/year;p< 0.0001). IQ increase was not significantly correlated with improvement in (sub)clinical outcome in any of the groups.ConclusionsDuring the first 10 years of the illness, IQ increases to a similar (and subtle) extent in a relatively high-functioning group of schizophrenia patients and controls, despite the lower IQ in patients at baseline. In addition, the siblings’ IQ was intermediate at baseline, but over time the increase in IQ was more pronounced.

The aims of this study were to 1) assess the predictive value of psychological assessment at five years of age on the need for educational support in very preterm children, and 2) report the neuropsychological profile of very preterm children at eleven years of age and risk factors for poorer neuropsychological functions. A cohort of 167 very preterm children was included (birth weight???1500?g and/or gestational age

There has been little examination of: (1) associations of early-life nutrition and adolescent cognitive skills, (2) if they vary by gender, (3) if they differ by diverse contexts, and (4) contributions of post-infancy growth to adolescent cognitive attainment. We use Young Lives data on 7687 children from Ethiopia, India, Peru, and Vietnam to undertake ordinary least squares estimates of associations between age-1 height-for-age z-score (HAZ) and age-15 cognitive outcomes (math, reading, vocabulary), controlling for child and household factors. Age-1 HAZ is positively associated with cognitive scores in all countries. Child gender-specific estimates for these coefficients either do not differ (math, reading) or favor girls (vocabulary). Augmenting models to include growth in HAZ between ages 1 and 15 years that was not predicted by HAZ at age 1 reveals that such improvements are associated with higher cognitive scores, but that sex-specific coefficients for this predictor favor boys in India and Peru. The results suggest that nutritional indicators at age 1 have gender-neutral associations with math and reading and favor girls for vocabulary achievement at age 15, but unpredicted improvements in HAZ by adolescence are associated with higher cognitive scores for boys than for girls. This evidence enriches our understanding of relationships between children’s nutritional trajectories during childhood and adolescent cognitive development, and how these associations vary by gender in some contexts to the possible disadvantage of girls.

This paper presents evidence for a strong connection between the development of speech and language skills and musical activities of children and adolescents with hearing impairment and/or cochlear implants. This conclusion is partially based on findings for typically hearing children and adolescents, showing better speech and language skills in children and adolescents with musical training, and importantly, showing increases of speech and language skills in children and adolescents taking part in musical training. Further, studies of hearing-impaired children show connections between musical skills, involvement in musical hobbies, and speech and language skills. Even though the field is still lacking large-scale randomised controlled trials on the effects of musical interventions on the speech and language skills of children and adolescents with hearing impairments and cochlear implants, the current evidence seems enough to urge speech therapists, music therapists, music teachers, parents, and children and adolescents with hearing impairments and/or cochlear implants to start using music for enhancing speech and language skills. For this reason, we give our recommendations on how to use music for language skill enhancement in this group.

Environment, physical activity (PA) and motor development are tightly interwoven during childhood. We examined the associations of environmental factors with motor competence (MC) in children. Children (N = 945, 50.1% boys, age = 3–7 years, mean = 5.4 years) from 37 childcare centres in the Southern (n = 17), Central (n = 13) and Northern Finland (n = 7) participated. The environmental factors comprised the geographical location (Southern, Central and Northern Finland) and residential density (metropolitan area, city, rural area and countryside) of the childcare centres’ based on postal codes and the national population density registry. MC was measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD)-3, as well as by quantifying time spent outdoors and participation in organised sports via parental questionnaire. It was found that children from the countryside had better MC and spent most time outdoors, while children from the metropolitan area most frequently engaged in organised sports. Gender comparisons revealed that girls outperformed boys in locomotor skills, while boys were better in object control skills, had higher TGMD-3 score and spent more time outdoors. Time spent outdoors and participation in organised sports were associated positively with MC, but not in children from the countryside. In conclusion, higher population density was associated with lower MC and less time spent outdoors. The findings suggest that versatile outdoor environments may support motor development through PA. View Full-Text Keywords: children; motor competence; environment; geographical location; residential density; outdoor time; participation in sports

We investigated intercultural competence among immigrant and non-immigrant background adolescents in multiethnic schools in relation to intercultural contact, age, and ethnic identity exploration. The sample included 631 adolescents in Germany (49.4% of immigrant background, 48.2% female), aged 11 to 18 years (M-age = 13.69 years, SDage = 1.83). Intercultural competence was measured using a self-report questionnaire and situational judgment tests capturing the adolescents' interpretation of and reaction to intercultural conflicts. Intercultural contacts and ethnic identity exploration were measured using self-report questionnaires. Results showed that among immigrant and non-immigrant background adolescents, intercultural contact and ethnic identity exploration were positively related to different aspects of intercultural competence. As predicted, self-reported intercultural competence was unrelated to age in both groups, whereas this competence, as measured by the situational judgment tests, increased with age. Thus, learning about others (e.g., by engaging in intercultural contact) and learning about yourself (e.g., by exploring your own ethnic background) are both important for developing pivotal intercultural skills.

Reading and math skills of preterm born (birth weight 1500 g or gestational age:532 weeks) children and full term (FT) children were compared during the first weeks of grade 1. The participants were 194 preterm born and 175 FT children born between 2001 and 2006. There were more precocious readers among FT than among preterm students, but even the latter performed close to the national norm. FT and preterm group differences among non-readers were minor with only rapid naming showing a robust difference. Math performance showed a stable difference in favor of FT students and the difference was sustained in the full-scale IQcontrol. Major brain pathology increased the likelihood of poor scholastic skills, but lower birth weight relative to gestational age did not. Somewhat surprisingly, maternal education was not associated with school readiness skills. (C) 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Traditional analyses of reasoning and interactions often describe the building of knowledge by comparing general outcomes of group data (e.g., averages, frequencies and percentages) and as a result, often neglect the underlying individual processes. In this paper, we present a case study of two dyads of children (four to sixyears old) working on a problem-solving task and aim to capture the moment-to-moment changes in a time serial data set. Particularly, we present the changes in the types of interactions and scientific reasoning skills (SRS) during a single problem-solving task. The three descriptive techniques implemented in the data analysis are: (1) a time-series analysis to track the behaviours from moment to moment; (2) transition matrices to describe behaviour changes; and (3) a hierarchical agglomerative clustering (HAC) with a hybrid clustering technique used to detect dyadic patterns. Our results describe the intra-individual variability of the dyads, supporting the assumption of the non-ergodicity (i.e., neither homogeneous nor static) condition of psychological processes. We show that intra-individual trajectories in the children's behaviours are neither homogeneous nor stationary, but variable over time.

Fat is an important component of human milk and infant formula (IF), delivering half of the energy a baby needs. Nowadays, mostly vegetable fats are used in IFs; however, the use of bovine milk fat in formulas is currently increasing. Bovine milk fat contains a composition of fatty acids and lipid components different from those of vegetable fats. We have compared the lipid profile of human and bovine milk with infant formulas with different fat sources. Furthermore, current knowledge of how infant digestion, absorption, metabolic responses, gut immunity, microbiota and/or cognition is affected by dietary fat is reviewed. The possible opportunities and drawbacks of the application of bovine milk fat in infant nutrition are described. Future perspectives for the development of IF containing bovine milk fat and future research directions are highlighted.

Fragmented sleep is common in infancy. Although night awakening is known to decrease with age, in some infants night awakening is more persistent and continues into older ages. However, the influence of fragmented sleep on development is poorly known. In the present study, the longitudinal relationship between fragmented sleep and psychomotor development (Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development [Bayley-III]; Bayley, 2009) was investigated in infants with (≥3 night awakenings, n = 81) and without fragmented sleep (≤1 night awakening, n = 70) within the CHILD-SLEEP birth cohort at 8 and 24 months of age. Differences in parent-reported (Brief Infant Sleep Questionnaire [BISQ]) sleep parameters were studied at 8, 18, and 24 months of age. Group differences in night awakening were stable across all assessment points. Infants with fragmented sleep slept less in total than infants without fragmented sleep and they did not compensate their nocturnal sleep during daytime. Additionally, infants with fragmented sleep spent more time awake at night than infants without fragmented sleep. However, psychomotor development did not differ between infants with and without fragmented sleep at 8 or 24 months of age. Our findings indicate that early onset fragmented sleep did not have a negative effect on psychomotor development within the first 2 years despite the differences in sleep length among infants with and without fragmented sleep. In the future, more specific domains of cognitive development and various factors affecting sleep fragmentation should be taken into account when studying the developmental effects of night awakening in infancy. (PsycINFO Database Record

IntroductionOptimal early childhood development is an international priority. Risks during pregnancy and early childhood have lasting effects because growth is rapid. We will test whether a complex intervention addressing multiple modifiable risks: maternal nutrition, mental health, parenting capabilities, infant health and development and gender-based violence, is effective in reducing deficient cognitive development among children aged two in rural Vietnam.Methods and analysisThe Learning Clubs intervention is a structured programme combining perinatal stage-specific information, learning activities and social support. It comprises 20 modules, in 19 accessible, facilitated groups for women at a community centre and one home visit. Evidence-informed content is from interventions to address each risk tested in randomised controlled trials in other resource-constrained settings. Content has been translated and culturally adapted for Vietnam and acceptability and feasibility established in pilot testing.We will conduct a two-arm parallel-group cluster-randomised controlled trial, with the commune as clustering unit. An independent statistician will select 84/112 communes in Ha Nam Province and randomly assign 42 to the control arm providing usual care and 42 to the intervention arm. In total, 1008 pregnant women (12 per commune) from 84 clusters are needed to detect a difference in the primary outcome (Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development Cognitive Score Ethics and disseminationMonash University Human Research Ethics Committee (Certificate Number 20160683), Melbourne, Victoria, Australia and the Institutional Review Board of the Hanoi School of Public Health (Certificate Number 017-377IDD- YTCC), Hanoi, Vietnam have approved the trial. Results will be disseminated through a comprehensive multistranded dissemination strategy including peer-reviewed publications, national and international conference presentations, seminars and technical and lay language reports.Trial registration numberACTRN12617000442303; Pre-results.

AimsTo investigate while accounting for health at birth 1) associations between health problems during childhood, measured as hospitalizations, and school achievement in the final year of compulsory school, measured as overall grade points and eligibility for upper secondary education, 2) if and how gender moderates the association between health problems and school achievement, 3) if and how the timing of a health problem during childhood is associated with later school achievement.MethodsAnalyzes were performed on a population-based cohort (n = 115 196) born in 1990 in Sweden (51.3% boys, 48.7% girls) using data from several national registries. Multiple linear regression and logistic regression were used to analyze associations between study variables.ResultsOverall grade points and eligibility for continuation to upper secondary school were lower for individuals exposed to hospitalizations. Only the association between hospitalizations and overall grade points was moderated by gender and only for ages 13-16 years. Exposure close to actual grading had worst outcomes.ConclusionsHealth problems, measured through hospitalizations, was significantly associated with lower school achievements among Swedish children. Girls exposed to health problems requiring hospitalizations had relatively poorer school achievements as compared to boys. Health problems requiring hospitalization during junior high school had the greatest negative association with final achievement at compulsory school.

BACKGROUND: Supplementation of formula with bovine milk fat globule membranes has been shown to narrow the gap in immunological and cognitive development between breast-fed and formula-fed infants. METHOD: In a double-blinded randomized controlled trial 160 formula-fed infants received an experimental formula (EF), supplemented with bovine milk fat globule membranes, or standard formula until 6 months of age. A breast-fed reference group was recruited. Lipidomic analyses were performed on plasma and erythrocyte membranes at 6 months and on serum at 4 and 12 months of age. RESULTS: At 6 months of age, we observed a significant separation in the plasma lipidome between the two formula groups, mostly due to differences in concentrations of sphingomyelins (SM), phosphatidylcholines (PC), and ceramides, and in the erythrocyte membrane lipidome, mostly due to SMs, PEs and PCs. Already at 4 months, a separation in the serum lipidome was evident where SMs and PCs contributed. The separation was not detected at 12 months. CONCLUSIONS: The effect of MFGM supplementation on the lipidome is likely part of the mechanisms behind the positive cognitive and immunological effects of feeding the EF previously reported in the same study population.

Background Delayed motor development may occur in children with Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, general developmental delay or children born preterm. It limits the child's exploration of the environment and can hinder cognitive and social-emotional development. Literature suggests that task-specific training, such as locomotor treadmill training, facilitates motor development. Objectives To assess the effectiveness of treadmill interventions on locomotor development in children with delayed ambulation or in pre-ambulatory children (or both), who are under six years of age and who are at risk for neuromotor delay. Search methods In May 2017, we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, six other databases and a number of trials registers. We also searched the reference lists of relevant studies and systematic reviews. Selection criteria We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs that evaluated the effect of treadmill intervention in the target population. Data collection and analysis Four authors independently extracted the data. Outcome parameters were structured according to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health model. Main results This is an update of a Cochrane review from 2011, which included five trials. This update includes seven studies on treadmill intervention in 175 children: 104 were allocated to treadmill groups, and 71 were controls. The studies varied in population (children with Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, developmental delay or at moderate risk for neuromotor delay); comparison type (treadmill versus no treadmill; treadmill with versus without orthoses; high- versus low-intensity training); study duration, and assessed outcomes. Due to the diversity of the studies, only data from five studies were used in meta-analyses for five outcomes: age of independent walking onset, overall gross motor function, gross motor function related to standing and walking, and gait velocity. GRADE assessments of quality of the evidence ranged from high to very low. The effects of treadmill intervention on independent walking onset compared to no treadmill intervention was population dependent, but showed no overall effect (mean difference (MD) -2.08, 95% confidence intervals (CI) -5.38 to 1.22, 2 studies, 58 children; moderate-quality evidence): 30 children with Down syndrome benefited from treadmill training (MD -4.00, 95% CI -6.96 to -1.04), but 28 children at moderate risk of developmental delay did not (MD -0.60, 95% CI -2.34 to 1.14). We found no evidence regarding walking onset in two studies that compared treadmill intervention with and without orthotics in 17 children (MD 0.10, 95% CI -5.96 to 6.16), and high- versus low-intensity treadmill interventions in 30 children with Down syndrome (MD -2.13, 95% -4.96 to 0.70). Treadmill intervention did not improve overall gross motor function (MD 0.88, 95% CI -4.54 to 6.30, 2 studies, 36 children; moderate-quality evidence) or gross motor skills related to standing (MD 5.41, 95% CI -1.64 to 12.43, 2 studies, 32 children; low-quality evidence), and had a negligible improvement in gross motor skills related to walking (MD 4.51, 95% CI 0.29 to 8.73, 2 studies, 32 children; low-quality evidence). It led to improved walking skills in 20 ambulatory children with developmental delay (MD 7.60, 95% CI 0.88 to 14.32, 1 study) and favourable gross motor skills in 12 children with cerebral palsy (MD 8.00, 95% CI 3.18 to 12.82). A study which compared treadmill intervention with and without orthotics in 17 children with Down syndrome suggested that adding orthotics might hinder overall gross motor progress (MD -8.40, 95% CI -14.55 to -2.25). Overall, treadmill intervention showed a very small increase in walking speed compared to no treadmill intervention (MD 0.23, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.37, 2 studies, 32 children; high-quality evidence). Treadmill intervention increased walking speed in 20 ambulatory children with developmental delay (MD 0.25, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.42), but not in 12 children with cerebral palsy (MD 0.18, 95% CI -0.09 to 0.45). Authors' conclusions This update of the review from 2011 provides additional evidence of the efficacy of treadmill intervention for certain groups of children up to six years of age, but power to find significant results still remains limited. The current findings indicate that treadmill intervention may accelerate the development of independent walking in children with Down syndrome and may accelerate motor skill attainment in children with cerebral palsy and general developmental delay. Future research should first confirm these findings with larger and better designed studies, especially for infants with cerebral palsy and developmental delay. Once efficacy is established, research should examine the optimal dosage of treadmill intervention in these populations.

Intraindividual variability is a key component in explaining children's development and learning. Studying this type of variability on the micro‐timescale can help us understand real‐time constructive processes and the subsequent long‐term development. The aim of this article is to study the process of children's understanding of floating and sinking during one single‐task session. A total of 38 kindergartners were asked to explain the floating or sinking of 14 different objects. The results reveal that the majority of children showed a high degree of intraindividual variability. In general, most children had a decrease in variability of both content and complexity of explanations during one task session and stabilized in both complexity and content toward the end of the task. The analyses indicated that hypothesis testing was not related to changes in children's explanations. These results can be the starting point for further research about change on different, nested timescales.

Christoph Völter was supported by a scholarship of the German National Academic Foundation. Planning defined as the predetermination of a sequence of actions towards some goal is crucial for complex problem solving. To shed light on the evolution of executive functions, we investigated the ontogenetic and phylogenetic origins of planning. Therefore, we presented all four great apes species (N = 12) as well as 4- and 5-year-old human preschoolers (N = 24) with a vertical maze task. To gain a reward placed on the uppermost level of the maze, subjects had to move the reward to the bottom through open gaps situated at each level of the maze. In total, there were ten gaps located over three of the maze's levels, and free passage through these gaps could be flexibly blocked using multiple traps. Due to the decision tree design of the maze, the subjects had to plan their actions depending on the trap configuration up to two steps ahead to successfully retrieve the reward. We found that (1) our measure of planning was negatively correlated with age in nonhuman apes, (2) younger apes as well as 5-year-old children planned their moves up to two steps ahead whereas 4-year-olds were limited to plan one step ahead, and (3) similar performance but different underlying limitations between apes and children. Namely, while all species of nonhuman apes were limited by a lack of motor control, human children exhibited a shortage in shifting their attention across a sequence of subgoals. (C) 2013 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Postprint

Background: Delayed motor development may occur in children with Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, general developmental delay or children born preterm. It limits the child's exploration of the environment and can hinder cognitive and social-emotional development. Literature suggests that task-specific training, such as locomotor treadmill training, facilitates motor development.Objectives: To assess the effectiveness of treadmill interventions on locomotor development in children with delayed ambulation or in preambulatory children (or both), who are under six years of age and who are at risk for neuromotor delay.Search methods: In May 2017, we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, six other databases and a number of trials registers. We also searched the reference lists of relevant studies and systematic reviews.Selection criteria: We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-RCTs that evaluated the effect of treadmill intervention in the target population.Data collection and analysis: Four authors independently extracted the data. Outcome parameters were structured according to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health model.Main results: This is an update of a Cochrane review from 2011, which included five trials. This update includes seven studies on treadmill intervention in 175 children: 104 were allocated to treadmill groups, and 71 were controls. The studies varied in population (children with Down syndrome, cerebral palsy, developmental delay or at moderate risk for neuromotor delay); comparison type (treadmill versus no treadmill; treadmill with versus without orthoses; high-versus low-intensity training); study duration, and assessed outcomes. Due to the diversity of the studies, only data from five studies were used in meta-analyses for five outcomes: age of independent walking onset, overall gross motor function, gross motor function related to standing and walking, and gait velocity. GRADE assessments of quality of the evidence ranged from high to very low.The effects of treadmill intervention on independent walking onset compared to no treadmill intervention was population dependent, but showed no overall effect (mean difference (MD) -2.08, 95% confidence intervals (CI) -5.38 to 1.22, 2 studies, 58 children; moderate-quality evidence): 30 children with Down syndrome benefited from treadmill training (MD -4.00, 95% CI -6.96 to -1.04), but 28 children at moderate risk of developmental delay did not (MD -0.60, 95% CI -2.34 to 1.14). We found no evidence regarding walking onset in two studies that compared treadmill intervention with and without orthotics in 17 children (MD 0.10, 95% CI -5.96 to 6.16), and high-versus low-intensity treadmill interventions in 30 children with Down syndrome (MD -2.13, 95% -4.96 to 0.70).Treadmill intervention did not improve overall grossmotor function (MD0.88, 95% CI -4.54 to 6.30, 2 studies, 36 children; moderate-quality evidence) or gross motor skills related to standing (MD 5.41, 95% CI -1.64 to 12.43, 2 studies, 32 children; low-quality evidence), and had a negligible improvement in gross motor skills related to walking (MD 4.51, 95% CI 0.29 to 8.73, 2 studies, 32 children; low-quality evidence). It led to improved walking skills in 20 ambulatory children with developmental delay (MD 7.60, 95% CI 0.88 to 14.32, 1 study) and favourable gross motor skills in 12 children with cerebral palsy (MD 8.00, 95% CI 3.18 to 12.82). A study which compared treadmill intervention with and without orthotics in 17 children with Down syndrome suggested that adding orthotics might hinder overall gross motor progress (MD -8.40, 95% CI -14.55 to -2.25).Overall, treadmill intervention showed a very small increase in walking speed compared to no treadmill intervention (MD0.23, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.37, 2 studies, 32 children; high-quality evidence). Treadmill intervention increased walking speed in 20 ambulatory children with developmental delay (MD 0.25, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.42), but not in 12 children with cerebral palsy (MD 0.18, 95% CI -0.09 to 0.45).Authors' conclusions: This update of the review from 2011 provides additional evidence of the efficacy of treadmill intervention for certain groups of children up to six years of age, but power to find significant results still remains limited. The current findings indicate that treadmill intervention may accelerate the development of independent walking in children with Down syndrome and may accelerate motor skill attainment in children with cerebral palsy and general developmental delay. Future research should first confirm these findings with larger and better designed studies, especially for infants with cerebral palsy and developmental delay. Once efficacy is established, research should examine the optimal dosage of treadmill intervention in these populations.

Research on Theory-of-Mind (ToM) has mainly focused on ages of core ToM development. This article follows a quantitative approach focusing on the level of ToM understanding on a measurement scale, the ToM Storybooks, in 324 typically developing children between 3 and 11 years of age. It deals with the eventual occurrence of developmental non-linearities in ToM functioning, using smoothing techniques, dynamic growth model building and additional indicators, namely moving skewness, moving growth rate changes and moving variability. The ToM sum-scores showed an overall developmental trend that leveled off toward the age of 10 years. Within this overall trend two non-linearities in the group-based change pattern were found: a plateau at the age of around 56 months and a dip at the age of 7278 months. These temporary regressions in ToM sum-score were accompanied by a decrease in growth rate and variability, and a change in skewness of the ToM data, all suggesting a developmental shift in ToM understanding. The temporary decreases also occurred in the different ToM sub-scores and most clearly so in the core ToM component of beliefs. It was also found that girls had an earlier growth spurt than boys and that the underlying developmental path was more salient in girls than in boys. The consequences of these findings are discussed from various theoretical points of view, with an emphasis on a dynamic systems interpretation of the underlying developmental paths.

Delayed motor development may occur in children with Down syndrome, cerebral palsy or children born preterm, which in turn may limit the child's opportunities to explore the environment. Neurophysiologic and early intervention literature suggests that task-specific training facilitates motor development. Treadmill intervention is a good example of locomotor task-specific training.Aim. The aim of this paper was to assess the effectiveness of treadmill intervention on locomotor motor development in pre-ambulatory infants and children under six years of age who are at risk for neuromotor delay.Design. A Cochrane systematic review with meta-analysis.Methods. We employed a comprehensive search strategy. We included randomised, quasi-randomised and controlled clinical trials that evaluated the effect of treadmill intervention in children up to six years of age with delays in gait development or the attainment of independent walking or who were at risk of neuromotor delay. We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Science Citation Index, PEDro, CPCI-S and LILACS; and also ICTRP, ClinicalTrials.gov, mRCT and Center Watch. Four authors independently extracted the data using standardized forms.Results. We included five studies, which reported on treadmill intervention in 139 children. Of the 139 children, 73 were allocated to treadmill intervention groups. The studies varied in the type of population studied, the type of comparison, the time of evaluation and the parameters assessed. Due to the diversity of the studies, we were only able to use data from three studies in meta-analyses and these were limited to two outcomes: age of onset of independent walking and gross motor function. Evidence suggested that treadmill intervention could lead to earlier onset of independent walking when compared to no treadmill intervention (effect estimate -1.47; 95% CI: -2.97, 0.03), though these trials studied two different populations: Down syndrome and children at risk of neuromotor disabilities. Children with Down syndrome seemed to benefit while it was not clear if this was the case for children at high risk of neuromotor disabilities. Two other studies, both in children with Down syndrome, compared different types of treadmill intervention (high versus low intensity training). Both were inconclusive regarding the impact of these different protocols on the age at which children started to walk. There is insufficient evidence to determine whether treadmill intervention improves gross motor function (effect estimate 0.88; 95% CI: -4.54, 6.30).Conclusion. The current review provided only limited evidence of the efficacy of treadmill intervention in children up to six years of age. Few studies have assessed treadmill interventions in young children using an appropriate control group. The available evidence indicates that treadmill intervention may accelerate the development of independent walking in children with Down syndrome. Further research is needed to confirm this and should also address whether intensive treadmill intervention can accelerate walking onset in young children with cerebral palsy and high risk infants, and whether treadmill intervention has a general effect on gross motor development in the various subgroups of young children at risk for developmental delay.

CONTEXT: Developmental outcomes of very preterm (gestational age ≤32 weeks) or very low birth weight ( OBJECTIVE: To determine the validity of early developmental assessments in predicting school-age cognitive deficits. DATA SOURCES: PubMed. STUDY SELECTION: English-language studies reporting at least 2 serial developmental/cognitive assessments on the same population, 1 between ages 1 and 3 years and 1 at ≥5 years. DATA EXTRACTION: For each study, we calculated the sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values of early assessment for cognitive deficit (defined as test scores 1 SD below the population mean). Pooled meta-analytic sensitivity and specificity were estimated by using a hierarchical summary receiver operator characteristic curve. RESULTS: We included 24 studies (n = 3133 children). Early assessments were conducted at 18 to 40 months and generally involved the Bayley Scales of Infant Development or the Griffiths Mental Development Scales; 11 different cognitive tests were used at school-age assessments at 5 to 18 years. Positive predictive values ranged from 20.0% to 88.9%, and negative predictive vales ranged from 47.8% to 95.5%. The pooled sensitivity (95% confidence interval) of early assessment for identifying school-age cognitive deficit was 55.0% (45.7%–63.9%) and specificity was 84.1% (77.5%–89.1%). Gestational age, birth weight, age at assessment, and time between assessments did not explain between-study heterogeneity. LIMITATIONS: The accuracy of aggregated data could not be verified. Many assessment tools have been superseded by newer editions. CONCLUSIONS: Early developmental assessment has poor sensitivity but good specificity and negative predictive value for school-age cognitive deficit.

Background Phelan-McDermid syndrome (PMS) or 22q13.3 deletion syndrome is characterized by global developmental delay, cognitive deficits, and behaviour in the autism spectrum. Knowledge about developmental and behavioural characteristics of this rare chromosomal disorder is still limited despite a rapid growing number of diagnoses. Our aim was to study a new and relatively large cohort to further characterize the developmental phenotype of children with PMS. Methods We performed a descriptive study of children with a 22q13.3 deletion including SHANK3, aged 8 to 178 months, who were systematically (n = 34) and longitudinally (n = 29) assessed with standardized instruments: Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, third edition; Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, third edition; and Vineland Screener for Social and Adaptive Behavior. Results Maximal developmental functioning ranged from 34 to 52 months depending on the developmental domain. In general, children performed poorest in the domain of language and best on the domain of motor (young children) or cognitive development (older children). At the individual level, 25 % scored better for receptive and 18 % for expressive language, whereas 22 % scored better for fine and 33 % for gross motor function. Developmental quotients were higher in younger children and decreased with age for all developmental domains, with 38 % of the children showing no improvement of cognitive developmental functioning. Almost all children (33/34) had significant deficits in adaptive behaviour. Children with very small deletions, covering only the SHANK3, ACR, and RABL2B genes, had a more favourable developmental phenotype. Conclusions Cognitive, motor, and especially language development were significantly impaired in all children with PMS but also highly variable and unpredictable. In addition, deficits in adaptive behaviour further hampered their cognitive development. Therefore, cognitive and behavioural characteristics should be evaluated and followed in each child with PMS to adapt supportive and therapeutic strategies to individual needs. Further research evaluating the relationship between deletion characteristics and the developmental phenotype is warranted to improve counselling of parents. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s11689-016-9150-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Introduction: The INMA project is a multicenter study based on prospective monitoring of mother-child cohorts in different Spanish geographical areas. Objective: To study the relationship between major environmental pollutants and child development in the pre-and postnatal phases. Material and Methods: The cohort groups share data collection methodology and tools (environmental exposure, biological samples, physical and neuropsychological examinations, diet questionnaires etc.) during intrauterine growth and monitored childhood development. Results: The levels of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in serum during the first trimester of pregnancy are reported, together with those for lead (Pb) and total mercury (Hg-T) in the umbilical cord, which are associated with the neuropsychological development analyzed to date. The POPs most frequently found were p, p’-DDE (99%) and PCB 153 (95%) with geometric mean in serum (ng / g-lipid) of 110.0 (p, p’-DDE) and 38.9 (PCB 153). The geometric mean and the maximum Pb level were 1.06 mg/dL and 19 mg/dL, respectively. The geometric mean Hg-T was 8.2 mg/L, with fish consumption being the main predictor. The Hg-T reference levels set by USEPA (6.4 mg/L) were exceeded in 64% of the samples. Conclusion: T The levels of POPs and Pb observed in the study areas were within the range of values previously described in earlier studies. The Hg levels require more in-depth assessment, as well as study of the possible associations with neuropsychological development. Introducción: El proyecto INMA es un estudio multicéntrico basado en el seguimiento prospectivo de cohortes de madres-hijos en distintas áreas de la geografía española. Objetivo: Estudiar la relación entre los principales contaminantes ambientales y el desarrollo de los niños y niñas en las fases pre y postnatales. Material y Métodos: El conjunto de las cohortes comparten metodología e instrumentos de recogida de información (exposición ambiental, muestras biológicas, exámenes del desarrollo físico y neuropsicológico, cuestionarios de dieta etc.) durante el crecimiento intrauterino y en las fases de seguimiento en la infancia. Resultados: Se presentan los niveles de Compuestos Orgánicos Persistentes (COP) en suero del primer trimestre de embarazo y de plomo (Pb) y mercurio total (Hg-T) de cordón umbilical y las asociaciones con el desarrollo neuropsicológico analizadas hasta la fecha. Los COP más frecuentemente encontrados fueron el p,p ́-DDE (99%) y el PCB 153 (95%) con medias geométricas en suero (ng/g-lípido) de 110,0 (p,p ́-DDE) y 38,9 (PCB 153). La media geométrica y el nivel máximo de Pb fueron 1,06 μg/dL y 19 μg/dL, respectivamente. La media geométrica de Hg-T fue de 8,2 μg/L, siendo el consumo de pescado el principal predictor. Un 64% de las muestras superan los niveles de referencia de Hg-T establecidos por la USEPA (6,4 μg/L). Conclusión: Los niveles de COP y Pb observados en las áreas de estudio se encuentran en el rango de valores ya descritos en estudios anteriores. Los niveles de Hg requieren una valoración más profunda, así como el estudio de las posibles asociaciones con el desarrollo neuropsicológico. Introdução: O projeto INMA é um estudo multicêntrico, que consiste no acompanhamento prospetivo de coortes mães-filhos em diferentes regiões de Espanha. Objetivo: Estudar a relação entre os principais poluentes ambientais e desenvolvimento da criança nas fases pré e pós-natal. Material e Métodos: Em todas as coortes é utilizada a mesma metodologia e instrumentos de recolha de dados (exposição ambiental, amostras biológicas, exames de desenvolvimento físico e neuro-psicológico, questionários de dieta, etc.) durante o crescimento intrauterino e nas fases de seguimento da infância. Resultados: Apresentam-se os níveis de poluentes orgânicos persistentes (POP) no soro do primeiro trimestre de gravidez, os valores de chumbo (Pb) e de mercúrio total (Hg-T) no cordão umbilical, e as associações com o desenvolvimento neuro-psicológico analisadas até à data. Os POP encontrados com maior frequência foram p,p ́-DDE (99%) e PCB 153 (95%) com uma média no soro (ng/g-lípido) de 110,0 (p,p ́-DDE) e 38,9 (PCB 153). A média e o nível máximo de Pb foram 1,06 μg/dL e 19 μg/dL, respetivamente. A média de Hg-T foi de 8,2 μg/L, sendo o consumo de peixe o principal responsável. Os níveis de Hg-T de referência estabelecidos pela USEPA (6,4 μg/L) foram ultrapassados em 64% das amostras. Conclusão: Os níveis de POP e Pb observados nas áreas de estudo apresentaram-se dentro dos valores descritos em estudos anteriores. Os teores de Hg requerem uma avaliação mais aprofundada, assim como o estudo das possíveis associações com o desenvolvimento neuro-psicológico.

Research over the past three decades has shown that early intervention in infants biologically at risk of developmental disorders, irrespective of the presence of a brain lesion, is associated with improved cognitive development in early childhood without affecting motor development. However, at present it is unknown whether early intervention is also able to improve developmental outcome in infants with a serious lesion of the brain. This paper discusses factors that might play a role in the effect of early intervention. The following picture emerged from the limited evidence available: (1) coaching of parents seems an effective means of intervention; (2) our understanding of the plasticity of the developing human brain is currently too limited to allow a direct practical implementation in early intervention; (3) intervention before term age should primarily focus on stress reduction, intervention after term age on stimulation of infant development; and (4) our knowledge of the best ways to stimulate infant development is scant. Nevertheless, preliminary data suggest that offering the infant ample opportunities to explore by self-produced motor activities the borders of their own abilities might be a good strategy for promoting developmental outcome, including functional mobility.

BACKGROUND: Up to 4% of children are born following assisted reproduction techniques (ART) yet relatively little is known on neurodevelopmental outcome of these children after 18 months of age. Only a limited number of long-term follow-up studies with adequate methodological quality have been reported. Our aim was to evaluate the effects of ovarian hyperstimulation, IVF laboratory procedures and a history of subfertility on neurological condition at 2 years. METHODS: Singletons born after controlled ovarian hyperstimulation IVF (COH-IVF, n=66), modified natural cycle IVF (MNC-IVF, n=56), natural conception in subfertile couples (Sub-NC, n=87) and in fertile couples (reference group, n=101) were assessed (using Hempel approach) by neurological examination at 2 years of age. This resulted in a neurological optimality score (NOS), a fluency score and the prevalence of minor neurological dysfunction (MND). Primary outcome was the fluency score, as fluency of movements is easily affected by subtle dysfunction of the nervous system. RESULTS: Fluency score, NOS and prevalence of MND were similar in COH-IVF, MNC-IVF and Sub-NC children. However, the fluency score (P

It takes more than 20 years before the human brain obtains its complex, adult configuration. Most dramatic developmental changes occur prenatally and early postnatally. During development, long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) such as doxosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA) are accreted in the brain. Since breastfeeding is associated with a better developmental outcome than formula feeding, and human milk in contrast to traditional standard formula contains LCPUFA, the question arose whether LCPUFA supplementation of infant formula may promote the neurodevelopmental outcome. The current paper reviews the evidence available in full-term infants. It concludes that postnatal supplementation of formula with LCPUFA is associated with a beneficial effect on short-term neurodevelopmental outcome. However, no evidence is available that LCPUFA supplementation enhances neurodevelopmental outcome in full-term infants beyond the age of four months. Nevertheless, it should be realized that very limited information is available on the effect of LCPUFA supplementation on neurodevelopmental outcome at school age or later. It is conceivable that effects of LCPUFA supplementation first emerge or re-emerge at school age when more complex neural functions are expressed.

Long-chain PUFA (LCPUFA) supplementation of formula can have beneficial effects on neurodevelopmental outcome in early infancy, but uncertainty exists regarding effects after 6 months. The present study is the first to investigate whether consumption by term infants of formula containing LCPUFA for the first 2 months after birth improves neurological condition of these children at 9 years of age. A prospective, double-blind, randomised control study was performed in two groups of healthy term infants: a control group with standard formula (n 169) and a LCPUFA-supplemented group (LF; n 146). A breast-fed group (BF; n 159) served as a reference. At age 9 years, children were neurologically assessed according to Touwen, resulting in a Neurological Optimality Score and information on severity and type of minor neurological dysfunction (MND). Information on potential confounders was collected at enrolment and follow-up. Multivariate analyses were carried out to evaluate the effect of nutrition while adjusting for confounders. Attrition (28 %) was selective: drop-outs in the LF group were more often boys and had a significantly lower mental developmental index at 18 months. Neurological optimality and severity and type of MND at 9 years did not differ between the two formula groups. Children in the BF group showed significantly less often fine manipulative dysfunction than formula-fed children. In conclusion, LCPUFA supplementation of formula during the first 2 postnatal months in healthy term infants does not alter neurological function at school age. The study confirmed that breast-fed infants have a slightly better neurodevelopmental outcome than formula-fed infants.

OBJECTIVE: The goal was to determine whether the quality of general movements (GMs) for preterm children had predictive value for cognitive development at school age. METHODS: In this prospective cohort study, 60 preterm infants (gestational age, median: 30.0 weeks [range: 25–33 weeks]; birth weight, median: 1130 g [range: 595–1800 g]) without cerebral palsy were studied. The quality of GMs was assessed prospectively as normal or abnormal, from video recordings that were made at regular intervals until 17 weeks after term. At 7 to 11 years, intelligence was tested by using the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children III, Dutch version. Total IQ (TIQ), verbal IQ (VIQ), and performance IQ (PIQ) scores were calculated. RESULTS: The median TIQ was 93 (range: 67–113), VIQ 96 (range: 68–117), and PIQ 92 (range: 65–119). Fifteen children (25%) had low TIQ scores ( CONCLUSIONS: The quality of GMs during the early postterm period is a marker for intelligence at school age. Abnormal GMs during the early postterm period may reflect injury or developmental disruptions of brain areas involved in cognitive development.

Background: Few studies have examined the overall effect of maternal fish intake during pregnancy on child development or examined whether the developmental benefits of maternal fish intake are greater in infants breastfed for a shorter duration. Objective: We aimed to study associations of maternal prenatal fish intake and breastfeeding duration with child developmental milestones. Design: We studied 25 446 children born to mothers participating in the Danish National Birth Cohort, a prospective population-based cohort study including pregnant women enrolled between 1997 and 2002. Mothers reported child development by a standardized interview, which we used to generate developmental scores at ages 6 and 18 mo. We used multivariate cumulative ordinal logistic regression to evaluate the odds of higher developmental scores associated with maternal fish intake and breastfeeding, after adjustment for child age, sex, and growth; maternal size and pregnancy characteristics; and parental education and social status. Results: Higher maternal fish intake and greater duration of breastfeeding were associated with higher child developmental scores at 18 mo [odds ratio: 1.29 (95% CI: 1.20, 1.38) for the highest versus the lowest quintile of fish intake, and 1.28 (1.18, 1.38) for breastfeeding for >= 10 mo compared with breastfeeding for Conclusions: Maternal fish intake during pregnancy and the duration of breastfeeding are independently associated with better early child development. Future research and consumption guidelines, incorporating nutritional benefits as well as contaminant risks, should consider the overall effect of prenatal fish consumption on child development.