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Twenty years ago, the International Criminal Court (hereinafter ICC or the Court) was established holding the aim of placing victims at the heart of international criminal justice proceedings and delivering justice to them through, among others, reparations. Article 75 of the Rome Statute lays out the reparations regime, and, in practice, court-ordered reparations are a means of delivering such justice. Focusing on Court decisions on reparations, our analysis takes stock of all developments before the ICC and attempts to highlight the mismatch between characteristics inherent to the objectives of international criminal trials such as providing accountability and punishment of the accused and delivering justice for victims of mass crimes—the so-called procedural challenges. We also submit that the Court is facing conceptual challenges, related to an apparent misunderstanding of the various concepts at stake: reparations as such and the various modalities and channels of enforcing them. We conclude that although the ICC’s reparation regime may not be the best reparative response to provide justice to victims in conflict situations affected by mass victimization, we suggest that improving the ICC’s approach includes, at a minimum, tackling these challenges.

A partir de 1991 se han introducido en Colombia derechos diferenciales para comunidades étnicas, generando mayores rupturas y diferenciaciones entre grupos que tienen en común una relación con la tierra. Este artículo señala que en el actual proceso de justicia transicional se reproducen diferencias equiparables, esta vez a través del concepto víctima como sujeto de reparación colectiva. Utilizando los espacios de la ley como herramienta metodológica para observar el derecho en la vida cotidiana, este artículo hace un análisis a partir del caso de una comunidad en el norte de Colombia, donde, dada su ilegibilidad como comunidad campesina, se debaten nuevas identidades ciudadanas. Ever since differential rights for ethnic communities were introduced in the Colombian Constitution of 1991, there have been major disruptions and differentiations among groups that share a relationship with the land. This article points out that the current process of transitional justice reproduces comparable differences, in this case through the concept of victim as a subject of collective redress. Using the concept of space of law as a methodological tool with which to observe law in everyday life, the article presents an analysis done through a case of a community in northern Colombia, the negotiation of new citizenship identities, as the category of peasant is not enough for being legible before the state. A partir de 1991, foram introduzidos, na Colômbia, direitos diferenciais para comunidades étnicas, o que gerou maiores rupturas e diferenciações entre grupos que têm em comum uma relação com a terra. Este artigo aponta que, no atual processo de justiça de transição, se reproduzem diferenças equiparáveis, desta vez por meio do conceito vítima como sujeito de reparação coletiva. Utilizando espaços da lei como ferramenta metodológica para observar o direito na vida cotidiana, este artigo faz uma análise a partir do caso de uma comunidade no norte da Colômbia, onde, tendo em vista sua ilegibilidade como comunidade camponesa, novas identidades cidadãs são debatidas.

Although international human rights law establishes the individual right to receive reparations, collective reparations have been considered a common response from judicial and non-judicial bodies to reparations for victims of gross violations of human rights. As such, collective reparations have been awarded within the field of international human rights law, international criminal law and transitional justice. Yet the concept, content and scope of collective reparations are rather unspecified. To date, neither the judicial nor the non-judicial bodies that have granted this kind of reparations have ever defined them. This thesis presents the first study on collective reparations. It aims to shed light on the legal framework, content and scope of collective reparations; and to the relationship between collective reparations and the individual right to reparations. In order to do so, the research analyses specific case law from the IACtHR, the ICC and the ECCC. Additionally, the practices of non-judicial mechanisms were examined, specifically those of the Peruvian and Moroccan Truth Commissions and of two mass claims compensation commissions (the UNCC and the EECC). Finally, it provides an overview of the challenges that collective reparations present to the fields of international human rights law and international criminal law, including in their implementation.

Although international human rights law establishes the individual right to receive reparations, collective reparations have been considered a common response from judicial and non-judicial bodies to reparations for victims of gross violations of human rights. As such, collective reparations have been awarded within the field of international human rights law, international criminal law and transitional justice. Yet the concept, content and scope of collective reparations are rather unspecified. To date, neither the judicial nor the non-judicial bodies that have granted this kind of reparations have ever defined them. This thesis presents the first study on collective reparations. It aims to shed light on the legal framework, content and scope of collective reparations; and to the relationship between collective reparations and the individual right to reparations. In order to do so, the research analyses specific case law from the IACtHR, the ICC and the ECCC. Additionally, the practices of non-judicial mechanisms were examined, specifically those of the Peruvian and Moroccan Truth Commissions and of two mass claims compensation commissions (the UNCC and the EECC). Finally, it provides an overview of the challenges that collective reparations present to the fields of international human rights law and international criminal law, including in their implementation.

Este artículo muestra las características de dos organizaciones de desplazados (residentes en Lima) por el conflicto armado interno peruano (1980-2000) y la manera en que tales características conforman oportunidades y obstáculos de cara al acceso al Programa de Reparaciones Colectivas -contemplado dentro de la política de reparaciones del Estado peruano-, el cual entrega a un beneficiario colectivo un proyecto para su aprovechamiento económico o para la reconstrucción social/institucional del grupo. Sobre la base de revisión bibliográfica, entrevistas a miembros de estas organizaciones y trabajo de campo etnográfico, se argumenta que las características de cada organización -junto con el tipo de proyecto de reparación colectiva escogido- crean escenarios de retos y posibilidades cuya resolución requiere capacidades de acción colectiva con las que estas organizaciones no necesariamente cuentan, lo que, en los hechos, menoscaba su derecho a la reparación. De esta manera, se afirma la importancia no solo de evaluar la oferta de reparaciones y su calidad, sino también las características de la demanda, es decir, de los grupos de desplazados beneficiarios y sus interacciones internas, y cómo estas se relacionan con el acceso a dichas reparaciones. This article illustrates the characteristics of two Lima-based organizations of persons displaced by the internal armed conflict in Peru (1980-2000), and the way in which these characteristics create opportunities and obstacles for access to the Program of Collective Reparations -a key element of the Peruvian reparations policy-. This program provides funding to a collective beneficiary for institutional strengthening or economic entrepreneurship. Based on bibliographic review, interviews with members of these organizations as well as ethnographic field work, I show that the characteristics of each displaced persons’ organization together with the type of collective project they choose create scenarios of challenges and possibilities which pose difficulties to these groups, requiring collective action capacities which they do not necessarily have. This results in a de facto situation that undermines their right to reparation. Therefore, I argue the importance not only of analizing the reparations offer and its quality, but also the characteristics of the demand, that is, of the beneficiary groups of displaced persons and their internal interactions, and how these factors shape access to reparations.

RESUMEN A partir de 1991 se han introducido en Colombia derechos diferenciales para comunidades étnicas, generando mayores rupturas y diferenciaciones entre grupos que tienen en común una relación con la tierra. Este artículo señala que en el actual proceso de justicia transicional se reproducen diferencias equiparables, esta vez a través del concepto víctima como sujeto de reparación colectiva. Utilizando los espacios de la ley como herramienta metodológica para observar el derecho en la vida cotidiana, este artículo hace un análisis a partir del caso de una comunidad en el norte de Colombia, donde, dada su ilegibilidad como comunidad campesina, se debaten nuevas identidades ciudadanas. ABSTRACT Ever since differential rights for ethnic communities were introduced in the Colombian Constitution of 1991, there have been major disruptions and differentiations among groups that share a relationship with the land. This article points out that the current process of transitional justice reproduces comparable differences, in this case through the concept of victim as a subject of collective redress. Using the concept of space of law as a methodological tool with which to observe law in everyday life, the article presents an analysis done through a case of a community in northern Colombia, the negotiation of new citizenship identities, as the category of peasant is not enough for being legible before the state. RESUMO A partir de 1991, foram introduzidos, na Colômbia, direitos diferenciais para comunidades étnicas, o que gerou maiores rupturas e diferenciações entre grupos que têm em comum uma relação com a terra. Este artigo aponta que, no atual processo de justiça de transição, se reproduzem diferenças equiparáveis, desta vez por meio do conceito vítima como sujeito de reparação coletiva. Utilizando espaços da lei como ferramenta metodológica para observar o direito na vida cotidiana, este artigo faz uma análise a partir do caso de uma comunidade no norte da Colômbia, onde, tendo em vista sua ilegibilidade como comunidade camponesa, novas identidades cidadãs são debatidas.

El conflicto armado que ha permeado la sociedad colombiana durante más de 5 décadas, ha generado víctimas individuales y colectivas vulnerado los derechos de las personas en su individualidad pero de igual manera, vulnerando los derechos colectivos de comunidades, grupos y organizaciones sociales y políticas. Colombia ha emprendido la tarea monumental de reparar a las víctimas en medio del conflicto. Hoy se cuenta con la Ley de Víctimas y Restitución de Tierras que contiene el Programa de Reparación Colectiva que responde a los daños ocasionados por el conflicto armado interno que vive Colombia y se traduce en la necesidad de restituir y garantizar los derechos vulnerados en cabeza de las comunidades, grupos y organizaciones sociales y políticas. Para lograr el anterior cometido, en el marco de las reglas dadas por la Justicia Transicional, se ha creado una institucionalidad que pretende la asistencia, atención y reparación a cargo del Estado como garante del bienestar social. Teniendo como referencia el enfoque de la Gestión Pública, que tiene como premisa la efectividad de las acciones adoptadas por la administración pública, y traslapando en el caso de Pueblo Bello las variables dadas por Paul A. Sabatier y Daniel A. Mazmanian, es posible analizar la efectividad de la política e identificar los obstáculos que hoy enfrenta la Reparación Colectiva para reparar integralmente los derechos de las comunidades, grupos y organizaciones sociales y políticas y entender la magnitud y alcance de esta política en el contexto actual de Colombia que atraviesa por un momento crucial de diálogo para terminar la guerra. (texto tomado de la fuente) The internal armed conflict, that has affected the Colombian society for more than five decades, has generated both individual and collective victims: it has violated the rights of individuals and the collective rights of communities, groups, and social and political organizations. Colombia assumed the huge task of repairing the victims even in the middle of the conflict. Today, the country is implementing the Victims and Land Restitution Law, which includes a Collective Reparations Program to repair the damages, and restore and guarantee the communities’ rights that had been violated. In order to do so, within the framework of a transitional justice process and as responsible for social well-being, the Colombian State created a whole group of institutions aim to provide assistance, care, and reparations for the victims. Taking into account the public management approach, which is based on the efficacy of the actions adopted by the Public Administration, and applying to the case of Pueblo Bello the variables given by Paul A. Sabatier and Daniel A. Mazmanian, it is possible to analyze the effectiveness of the policy, to identify the obstacles today faced by the Collective Reparations Program, and to understand this policy’s scale and scope within the current context, where Colombia is in the middle of a key dialogue to put an end to war. Maestría Derechos Humanos

Resumen Este artículo tiene por objetivo explicar las causas y efectos de la violencia para-militar en la comunidad de Zipacoa (Villanueva, Bolívar), a partir del testimonio de las víctimas y las intervenciones institucionales realizadas en el proceso de reparación colectiva. Se analizan las consecuencias producidas por el conflicto armado en Zipacoa, identificando los hechos victimizantes ocurridos y su articulación en la construcción de medidas de reparación. Metodológicamente, los resultados se construyen desde un enfoque cualitativo, articulado a una perspectiva holística de la investigación social. Se usaron técnicas de recolección de la información que articulan la sistematización de documentos y la consolidación de relatos por actores de la comunidad. Para cumplir con estos objetivos, el artículo se divide en tres partes. En la primera se analizan los presupuestos teóricos de la reparación colectiva en el marco de la justicia transicional y la justicia restaurativa respecto a las medidas de rehabilitación y satisfacción. La segunda parte del trabajo describe a Zipacoa como territorio afectado por el conflicto armado, concretamente por la violencia paramilitar, génesis de la ruptura del tejido social de la comunidad. Finalmente, la tercera parte analiza las afectaciones y su incidencia en el plan integral de reparación colectiva. Ello arroja como resultado que la falta de condiciones para trabajar la tierra es el problema por el cual la violencia persiste en el territorio. Las conclusiones de este artículo muestran que los efectos de la violencia paramilitar consolidan toda una serie de afectaciones que histórica y culturalmente han golpeado a la comunidad; cualquier tipo de medida que pretenda consolidarse en el territorio, no solo debe enfocarse en la articulación de procesos que fortalezcan la productividad de esta, sino a apostarle a una transformación del tejido social. Abstract This article aims to explain the causes and effects of paramilitary violence in the community of Zipacoa (Villanueva, Bolívar), based on the testimony of the victims and the institutional interventions carried out in the process of collective reparation. The consequences of the armed conflict in Zipacoa are analyzed, identifying the victimizing events and their articulation in the construction of reparation measures. Methodologically, the results are constructed from a qualitative approach, articulated to a holistic perspective of social research. Information gathering techniques were used to articulate the systematization of documents and the consolidation of stories by community actors. To meet these objectives, the article is divided into three parts. In the first, we analyze the theoretical assumptions of collective reparation within the framework of transitional justice and restorative justice with regard to measures of rehabilitation and satisfaction. The second part of the work describes Zipacoa as a territory affected by the armed conflict, specifically by paramilitary violence, the genesis of the rupture of the social fabric of the community. Finally, the third part analyzes the effects and their impact on the comprehensive plan for collective redress. This shows that the lack of conditions to work the land is the problem by which violence persists in the territory. The conclusions of this article show that the effects of paramilitary violence consolidate a series of affectations that historically and culturally have hit the community; Any type of measure that intends to consolidate in the territory, should not only focus on the articulation of processes that strengthen the productivity of this, but to bet on a transformation of the social fabric.

A partir da análise do documento disponibilizado no decurso das aulas do curso de Direito Internacional Penal referente à acusação e julgamento do ex-líder de um movimento rebelde da República Democrática do Congo, a União de Patriotas Congoleses (UPC), designadamente, Sr. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, por participação efetiva em crimes de Guerra, nomeadamente, o recrutamento de crianças como soldados para o seu exército, durante o período compreendido entre 1 de Setembro de 2002 e 13 de Agosto de 2003 ficou claro que o mesmo não foi acusado e, consequentemente, condenado por práticas relacionadas com crimes sexuais contra as crianças recrutadas com idade inferior a 15 anos, apesar de tal assunto ter sido abordado por testemunhas, vítimas, promotor e pelo próprio International Criminal Court (ICC). Desta forma, entendemos que este crime, constituindo uma grave ameaça à integridade física e psíquica das vítimas, com consequências nefastas e profundamente traumatizantes deveria ser alvo de uma tutela mais efetiva no âmbito internacional, punido aqueles que o praticam e desencorajando os que a equacionam. From the analysis of a document provided during International Criminal Law Course concerning to the prosecution and judgment of an insurgent group ex-leader from Democratic Republic of Congo, the Union of Congolese Patriot, Mr. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, for his effective participation on war crimes, namely, the conscripting of child soldiers under the age of fifteen for his army, during the period between September 1st, 2002 and August 13th, 2003 it was clear that, during all the procedure, he wasn’t accused (and, as a consequence, not charged) for the conduct of sexual practices associated to the child soldiers conscription, in spite of has been approached by the investigator, prosecutor, witnesses and Trial Chamber. Therefore, we understand that this crime, with deep traumatizing harmful consequences should be better considered in the international level, with a more effective protection, charging those who practices and discouraging who equate. Hereupon, in this working paper, we try to understand these crime consequences not only for the child soldiers in the present but also their future and for their families, criticizing the way it was lead.

Recent case law from international courts shows an increased willingness to grant collective reparations. This article focuses on how the Inter-American Court of Human Rights has recently been involved in granting a variety of collective reparations to indigenous groups. Moreover, it illustrates the diverse nature of collective reparations, and why there is a need for them.