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We look at the beliefs of the population in North Cameroon concerning water, fish and water spirits in the context of the construction of a dam (1979) and of a flood embankment for a rice irrigation scheme financed by the World Bank. These operations caused a drought that had severe effects on the environment and the inhabitants' economic activities. Acknowledging the new approaches within development and ecological development thinking, we emphasize that local people are part of their environment, and that the environment and people's use of the ecosystem ought to be regarded as a functional unit. Our main argument is that the success of environmental strategies requires that the unequal power relations between the different actors and agencies and the perceptions of policymakers and NGOs be analysed and examined regularly in the course of a project to test their aims and integrity. In addition, the positions of beings and cosmological entities, which in the eyes of the population are 'actors of power to be reckoned with', like the water spirit, should also be included. The hidden agendas of all actors can be as difficult as the water spirit (Maama Waata) itself, by which we mean that hidden agendas are equally a part of reality as is the water spirit, even if they are not visible at first. KEYWORDS: Cameroon, perception, environment, development, power relations, water spirit

Research in Cameroon's East province shows that forest-cover modifications resulting from logging increase according to the forest rent value. Data were obtained through remote sensing and a geographic information system programmed with economic and ecological variables.

Wildlife management policies are needed to balance the objectives of Cameroon's Dja Biosphere Reserve with villager subsistence hunting. Studies show that animal populations depleted by hunting will encourage villagers to journey deeper into the reserve's forests, increasing human encroachment. Possible solutions include restricting hunters to ranges within 15 km of their villages.

Poverty is threatening sustainable biodiversity use in Cameroon. The country's economic crisis is having a distinctly negative impact on rural societies, causing a sharp rise in excessive exploitation of rain forest flora and fauna. This has generated a growing erosion of regional biodiversity, linking conservation efforts to sound economic policy.

Immigration to Cameroon's Waza-Logone region is complicating conservation efforts under the Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDP) model. Since ICDPs do not incorporate demographic monitoring, human encroachment is inadequately addressed. Suggestions for regional land-use planning that discourage development and immigration are presented.

Contrary to your implication (Nature 472, 390; 2011), the World Bank's policy on indigenous peoples depends on more than just their consent after consultation. The charter of our Forest Carbon [...]