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The ability ofSalmonellato survive and replicate within mammalian host cells involves the generation of a membranous compartment known as theSalmonella-containing vacuole (SCV).Salmonellaemploys a number of effector proteins that are injected into host cells for SCV formation using its type-three secretion systems encoded in SPI-1 and SPI-2 (T3SSSPI-1and T3SSSPI-2, respectively). Recently, we reported thatS. Typhimurium requires T3SSSPI-1and T3SSSPI-2to survive in the model amoebaDictyostelium discoideum. Despite these findings, the involved effector proteins have not been identified yet. Therefore, we evaluated the role of two majorS. Typhimurium effectors SopB and SifA duringD. discoideumintracellular niche formation. First, we established thatS. Typhimurium resides in a vacuolar compartment withinD. discoideum. Next, we isolated SCVs from amoebae infected with wild type or the ΔsopBand ΔsifAmutant strains ofS. Typhimurium, and we characterized the composition of this compartment by quantitative proteomics. This comparative analysis suggests thatS. Typhimurium requires SopB and SifA to modify the SCV proteome in order to generate a suitable intracellular niche inD. discoideum. Accordingly, we observed that SopB and SifA are needed for intracellular survival ofS. Typhimurium in this organism. Thus, our results provide insight into the mechanisms employed bySalmonellato survive intracellularly in phagocytic amoebae.ImportanceThe molecular mechanisms involved inSalmonellasurvival to predation by phagocytic amoebae, such asD. discoideum, remains poorly understood. Although we established thatS. Typhimurium requires two specialized type-three secretion systems to survive inD. discoideum, no effector protein has been implicated in this process so far. Here, we confirmed the presence of a membrane-bound compartment containingS. Typhimurium inD. discoideum, and purified theD. discoideumSCV to characterize the associated proteome. In doing so, we established a key role for effector proteins SopB and SifA in remodeling the protein content of the SCV that ultimately allow the intracellular survival ofS. Typhimurium inD. discoideum. We also discuss similarities and differences with the proteomes of the human SCV. These findings contribute to unravel the mechanisms used bySalmonellato survive in the environment exploiting phagocytic amoebae as a reservoir.

Macropinocytosis is a non-selective endocytic process by which cells take up large amounts of extracellular fluids into giant vesicles known as macropinosomes. This mechanism is used by immune cells to sample the surroundings for antigens and can be exploited by cancer cells for nutrient uptake. What determines the fate of macropinosomes after they have been internalized is largely unknown. Here we investigate the role of the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase VPS34/PIK3C3 and its product phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate (PtdIns3P) in macropinosome fate determination. Inhibition of VPS34 led to a decrease in macropinosome survival and fluid phase uptake as well as preventing recruitment of early endosomal factors, including the small GTPase RAB5 and its effectors, to the forming macropinosomes. Instead, forming macropinosomes under VPS34 inhibition accumulated regulators of endocytic recycling, including RAB8A, RAB10, RAB11A, and PtdIns4P, which led to fusion of macropinosomes with the plasma membrane.Whereas RAB5 was critical for macropinosome formation, macropinosome fusion with the plasma membrane depended on RAB8A. Thus, macropinosome maturation is regulated by a PtdIns3P-controlled switch that balances macropinosome fate between the default, endolysosomal maturation and an alternative, secretory route.

Laparoscopic Nissen Fundoplication fails in almost 15% of patients and most of them must be re-operated in order to improve reflux symptoms, esophagitis, or hiatal hernia. Surgical options are to redo LNF, distal gastrectomy alone or combination of both procedures. Redoing LNF, is associated with high rate of postoperative complications and re-failure. Purpose To present the early and medium-term postoperative outcomes of patients submitted to Laparoscopic Toupet Fundoplication combined with Distal Gastrectomy with Roux-en-Y gastrojejunostomy. Methods prospective study including 23 patients submitted to Laparoscopic Nissen Fundoplication who presented recurrence of gastroesophageal reflux after the operation. They were studied with endoscopy, barium swallow, manometry and 24 h pH monitoring in order to determine presence of esophagitis, anatomical deformities, defective Lower Esophageal Sphincter and pathologic acid reflux. Surgical process consisted on re-establishing the anatomy of the esophago-gastric junction, and then perform laparoscopic Toupet fundoplication combined with distal gastrecvtomy and Roux Y gastrojejunostomy. Results After surgery statistically significant improvement regarding heartburn (p Conclusion The proposed procedure is safe option to treat successfully patients after failed Nissen fundoplication. Reflux symptoms, esophagitis, presence oh hiatal hernia and reflux score improved after the procedure.

Salmonella Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) is an enteric bacterium capable of invading a wide range of hosts, including rodents and humans. It targets different host cell types showing different intracellular lifestyles. S. Typhimurium colonizes different intracellular niches and is able to either actively divide at various rates or remain dormant to persist. A comprehensive tool to determine these distinct S. Typhimurium lifestyles remains lacking. Here we developed a novel fluorescent reporter, Salmonella INtracellular Analyzer (SINA), compatible for fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry in single-bacterium level quantification. This identified a S. Typhimurium subpopulation in infected epithelial cells that exhibits a unique phenotype in comparison to the previously documented vacuolar or cytosolic S. Typhimurium. This subpopulation entered a dormant state in a vesicular compartment distinct from the conventional Salmonella-containing vacuoles (SCV) as well as the previously reported niche of dormant S. Typhimurium in macrophages. The dormant S. Typhimurium inside enterocytes were viable and expressed Salmonella Pathogenicity Island 2 (SPI-2) virulence factors at later time points. We found that the formation of these dormant S. Typhimurium is not triggered by the loss of SPI-2 effector secretion but it is regulated by (p)ppGpp-mediated stringent response through RelA and SpoT. We predict that intraepithelial dormant S. Typhimurium represents an important pathogen niche and provides an alternative strategy for S. Typhimurium pathogenicity and its persistence., Author summary Salmonella Typhimurium is a clinically relevant bacterial pathogen that causes Salmonellosis. It can actively or passively invade various host cell types and reside in a Salmonella-containing vacuole (SCV) within host cells. The SCV can be remodeled into a replicative niche with the aid of Salmonella Type III Secretion System 2 (T3SS2) effectors or else, the SCV is ruptured for the access of the nutrient-rich host cytosol. Depending on the infected host cell type, S. Typhimurium undertake different lifestyles that are distinct by their subcellular localization, replication rate and metabolic rate. We present here a novel fluorescent reporter system that rapidly detects S. Typhimurium lifestyles using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry. We identified a dormant S. Typhimurium population within enterocyte that displays capacities in host cell persistence, dormancy exit and antibiotic tolerance. We deciphered the (p)ppGpp stringent response pathway that suppresses S. Typhimurium dormancy in enterocytes while promoting dormancy in macrophages, pinpointing a divergent physiological consequence regulated by the same set of S. Typhimurium molecular mediators. Altogether, our work demonstrated the potential of fluorescent reporters in facile bacterial characterization, and revealed a dormant S. Typhimurium population in human enterocytes that are phenotypically distinct from that observed in macrophages and fibroblasts.

The type III secretion systems (T3SS) encoded in pathogenicity islands SPI-1 and SPI-2 are key virulence factors of Salmonella. These systems translocate proteins known as effectors into eukaryotic cells during infection. To characterize the functionality of T3SS effectors, gene fusions to the CyaA’ reporter of Bordetella pertussis are often used. CyaA’ is a calmodulin-dependent adenylate cyclase that is only active within eukaryotic cells. Thus, the translocation of an effector fused to CyaA’ can be evaluated by measuring cAMP levels in infected cells. Here, we report the construction of plasmids pCyaA’-Kan and pCyaA’-Cam, which contain the ORF encoding CyaA’ adjacent to a cassette that confers resistance to kanamycin or chloramphenicol, respectively, flanked by Flp recombinase target (FRT) sites. A PCR product from pCyaA’-Kan or pCyaA’-Cam containing these genetic elements can be introduced into the bacterial chromosome to generate gene fusions by homologous recombination using the Red recombination system from bacteriophage λ. Subsequently, the resistance cassette can be removed by recombination between the FRT sites using the Flp recombinase. As a proof of concept, the plasmids pCyaA’-Kan and pCyaA’-Cam were used to generate unmarked chromosomal fusions of 10 T3SS effectors to CyaA’ in S. Typhimurium. Each fusion protein was detected by Western blot using an anti-CyaA’ monoclonal antibody when the corresponding mutant strain was grown under conditions that induce the expression of the native gene. In addition, T3SS-1-dependent secretion of fusion protein SipA-CyaA’ during in vitro growth was verified by Western blot analysis of culture supernatants. Finally, efficient translocation of SipA-CyaA’ into HeLa cells was evidenced by increased intracellular cAMP levels at different times of infection. Therefore, the plasmids pCyaA’-Kan and pCyaA’-Cam can be used to generate unmarked chromosomal cyaA’ translational fusion to study regulated expression, secretion and translocation of Salmonella T3SS effectors into eukaryotic cells.

International audience; This paper describes a method for analyzing a corpus of descriptions collected through micro-phenomenological interviews. This analysis aims at identifying the structure of the singular experiences which have been described, and in particular their diachronic structure, while unfolding generic experiential structures through an iterative approach. After summarizing the principles of the micro-phenomenological interview, and then describing the process of preparation of the verbatim, the article presents on the one hand, the principles and conceptual devices of the analysis method and on the other hand several dimensions of the analysis process: the modes of structural unfolding of generic structures, the mutual guidance of the processes of structural and experiential unfolding, the tracking of analysis processes, and finally the validation of analysis results.

Summary The enteroinvasive bacterium Shigella flexneri forces its uptake into non-phagocytic host cells through the translocation of T3SS effectors that subvert the actin cytoskeleton. Here, we report de novo actin polymerization after cellular entry around the bacterium-containing vacuole (BCV) leading to the formation of a dynamic actin cocoon. This cocoon is thicker than any described cellular actin structure and functions as a gatekeeper for the cytosolic access of the pathogen. Host CDC42, TOCA-1, N-WASP, WIP, the Arp2/3 complex, cortactin, coronin, and cofilin are recruited to the actin cocoon. They are subverted by T3SS effectors, such as IpgD, IpgB1, and IcsB. IcsB immobilizes components of the actin polymerization machinery at the BCV dependent on its fatty acyltransferase activity. This represents a unique microbial subversion strategy through localized entrapment of host actin regulators causing massive actin assembly. We propose that the cocoon promotes subsequent invasion steps for successful Shigella infection., Graphical Abstract, Highlights • A thick actin cocoon forms de novo around the Shigella-containing vacuole upon entry • The effector IcsB entraps host actin regulators at the vacuole by lipidation • Cdc42, N-WASP, and the Arp2/3 complex are major actin cocoon regulators • Cocoon formation promotes subsequent Shigella niche formation and dissemination, Kühn et al. present the formation of a massive actin cocoon structure around the Shigella-containing vacuole upon bacterial entry in enterocytes. This cocoon is formed by the pathogen-induced localization of host actin regulators at the phagosome. It favors efficient cytosolic access and spread for successful infection.

Inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) deficiency in enteric bacterial pathogens reduces their ability to invade and establish systemic infections in different hosts. For instance, inactivation of the polyP kinase gene (ppk) encoding the enzyme responsible for polyP biosynthesis reduces invasiveness and intracellular survival of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium (S. Typhimurium) in epithelial cells and macrophages in vitro. In addition, the virulence in vivo of a S. Typhimurium Δppk mutant is significantly reduced in a murine infection model. In spite of these observations, the role played by polyP during the Salmonella-host interaction is not well understood. The social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum has proven to be a useful model for studying relevant aspects of the host-pathogen interaction. In fact, many intracellular pathogens can survive within D. discoideum cells using molecular mechanisms also required to survive within macrophages. Recently, we established that S. Typhimurium is able to survive intracellularly in D. discoideum and identified relevant genes linked to virulence that are crucial for this process. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of a polyP deficiency in S. Typhimurium during its interaction with D. discoideum. To do this, we evaluated the intracellular survival of wild-type and Δppk strains of S. Typhimurium in D. discoideum and the ability of these strains to delay the social development of the amoeba. In contrast to the wild-type strain, the Δppk mutant was unable to survive intracellularly in D. discoideum and enabled the social development of the amoeba. Both phenotypes were complemented using a plasmid carrying a copy of the ppk gene. Next, we simultaneously evaluated the proteomic response of both S. Typhimurium and D. discoideum during host-pathogen interaction via global proteomic profiling. The analysis of our results allowed the identification of novel molecular signatures that give insight into Salmonella-Dictyostelium interaction. Altogether, our results indicate that inorganic polyP is essential for S. Typhimurium virulence and survival in D. discoideum. In addition, we have validated the use of global proteomic analyses to simultaneously evaluate the host-pathogen interaction of S. Typhimurium and D. discoideum. Furthermore, our infection assays using these organisms can be exploited to screen for novel anti-virulence molecules targeting inorganic polyP biosynthesis.

Fibromyalgia is a widespread chronic pain disease characterized by generalized musculoskeletal pain and fatigue. It substantially affects patients' relationship with their bodies and quality of life, but few studies have investigated the relationship between pain and body awareness in fibromyalgia. We examined exteroceptive and interoceptive aspects of body awareness in 30 women with fibromyalgia and 29 control participants. Exteroceptive body awareness was assessed by a body-scaled action-anticipation task in which participants estimated whether they could pass through apertures of different widths. Interoceptive sensitivity (IS) was assessed by a heartbeat detection task where participants counted their heartbeats during different time intervals. Interoceptive awareness was assessed by the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA). The “passability ratio” (the aperture size for a 50% positive response rate, divided by shoulder width), assessed by the body-scaled action-anticipation task, was higher for fibromyalgia participants, indicating disrupted exteroceptive awareness. Overestimating body size correlated positively with pain and its impact on functionality, but not with pain intensity. There was no difference in IS between groups. Fibromyalgia patients exhibited a higher tendency to note bodily sensations and decreased body confidence. In addition, the passability ratio and IS score correlated negatively across the whole sample, suggesting an inverse relationship between exteroceptive and interoceptive body awareness. There was a lower tendency to actively listen to the body for insight, with higher passability ratios across the whole sample. Based on our results and building on the fear-avoidance model, we outline a proposal that highlights possible interactions between exteroceptive and interoceptive body awareness and pain. Movement based contemplative practices that target sensory-motor integration and foster non-judgmental reconnection with bodily sensations are suggested to improve body confidence, functionality, and quality of life.

espanolEste articulo aborda la relacion entre el dolor cronico y la conciencia corporal. El dolor cronico se refiere a un conjunto de patologias que se caracterizan por la presencia constante de dolor, cuya intensidad y duracion no pueden ser explicadas en terminos de lesiones del sistema nervioso periferico. La falta de explicacion en terminos de dano periferico ha llevado a los investigadores a suponer que el sistema nervioso central desempena un papel crucial en estos sindromes. En particular, se ha propuesto que la cronicidad del dolor causada posiblemente por una perturbacion de los mecanismos involucrados en lo que podria llamar-se la conciencia corporal 'exteroceptiva'. En la primera parte de este articulo presento estudios que muestran una relacion bi-direccional entre el dolor cronico y la conciencia corporal exteroceptiva, asi como la hipotesis que el este dolor resulta de la perturbacion de los mecanismos subyacentes a este tipo de conciencia corporal. A continuacion, presento algunos problemas que esta hipotesis no logra explicar, y considero la relacion entre el dolor cronico y el sistema nervioso autonomo. Por ultimo, considero esta ultima relacion a la luz de la nocion de conciencia corporal 'interoceptiva', y sugiero que la comprension de los mecanismos que relacionan los aspectos exteroceptivos e interoceptivos de la conciencia corporal, podrian contribuir a la comprension de la natura-leza y el desarrollo de dolor cronico. EnglishThis review article addresses the relationship between chronic pain and body awareness. Chronic pain refers to an ensemble of pain conditions whose common characteristic is the fact that peripheral lesions cannot explain the duration and intensity of the pain. The lack of explanation in terms of peripheral damage has led researchers to assume that the central nervous system plays a crucial role in these conditions. In particular, one suggestion about how such central factors might operate is by influencing patients? body awareness. In the first part of this article I present evidence showing a bidirectional relationship between chronic pain and what might be called "exteroceptive" body awareness, as well as the related hypothesis that pain results from a disruption in the mechanisms underlying exteroceptive body awareness. Next, I discuss some issues that this hypothesis fails to explain, and I consider the relationship between chronic pain and the autonomic nervous system. Finally, I relate this latter relationship to the notion of "interoceptive" body awareness, and explore the idea that understanding the mechanisms that relate exteroceptive and interoceptive aspects of body awareness might shed light on the nature and development of chronic pain.

The role of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in entry of Salmonella Typhimurium into epithelial cells remains unclear. In this study, we tested the ability of a series of mutants with deletions in genes for the synthesis and assembly of the O antigen and the outer core of LPS to adhere to and invade HeLa, BHK, and IB3 epithelial cells lines. Mutants devoid of O antigen, or that synthesized only one O antigen unit, or with altered O antigen chain lengths were as able as the wild type to enter epithelial cells, indicating that this polysaccharide is not required for invasion of epithelial cells in vitro . In contrast, the LPS core plays a role in the interaction of S. Typhimurium with epithelial cells. The minimal core structure required for adherence and invasion comprised the inner core and residues Glc I–Gal I of the outer core. A mutant of S. Typhimurium that produced a truncated LPS core lacking the terminal galactose residue had a significant lower level of adherence to and ingestion by the three epithelial cell lines than did strains with this characteristic. Complementation of the LPS production defect recovered invasion to parental levels. Heat-killed bacteria with a core composed of Glc I–Gal I, but not bacteria with a core composed of Glc I, inhibited uptake of the wild type by HeLa cells. A comparison of the chemical structure of the S . Typhi core with the published chemical structure of that of S . Typhimurium indicated that the Glc I–Gal I–Glc II backbone is conserved in both serovars. However, S . Typhi requires a terminal glucose for maximal invasion. Therefore, our data indicate that critical saccharide residues of the outer core play different roles in the early interactions of serovars Typhi and Typhimurium with epithelial cells.

The multidimensional assessment of interoceptive awareness (MAIA) is an instrument designed to assess interoceptive awareness. The aim of this study was to adapt the original MAIA scale to Spanish and to analyze its psychometric properties in a Chilean population. The MAIA was administered to 470 adults, aged 18-70 years, 76.6% women and 23.4% men, residents of the provinces of Valparaíso and Concepción, Chile. Exploratory factor analysis reduced the scale from 32 to 30 items. Confirmatory factor analysis supports a structure of eight interrelated factors (Noticing, Not-Distracting, Not-Worrying, Attention Regulation, Emotional Awareness, Self- Regulation, Body Listening, and Trusting), similar to the original scale (χ(2) (371) = 659.78, p = 0.0001; CFI = 0.92, TLI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.056 and SRMR = 0.059). The Spanish version showed appropriate indicators of construct validity and reliability, with a Cronbach's α of 0.90 for the total scale, and values between 0.40 and 0.86 for the different subscales. Similar to previous studies, low reliability was observed in two of the eight scales (Not-Distracting and Not-Worrying), thus further revision of these subscales is suggested. The Spanish version of MAIA proved to be a valid and reliable tool to investigate interoceptive awareness in the Chilean population.

We constructed two collections of targeted single gene deletion (SGD) mutants and two collections of targeted multi-gene deletion (MGD) mutants in Salmonella enterica sv Typhimurium 14028s. The SGD mutant collections contain (1), 3517 mutants in which a single gene is replaced by a cassette containing a kanamycin resistance (KanR) gene oriented in the sense direction (SGD-K), and (2), 3376 mutants with a chloramphenicol resistance gene (Cam R) oriented in the antisense direction (SGD-C). A combined total of 3773 individual genes were deleted across these SGD collections. The MGD collections contain mutants bearing deletions of contiguous regions of three or more genes and include (3), 198 mutants spanning 2543 genes replaced by a KanR cassette (MGD-K), and (4), 251 mutants spanning 2799 genes replaced by a CamR cassette (MGD-C). Overall, 3476 genes were deleted in at least one MGD collection. The collections with different antibiotic markers permit construction of all viable combinations of mutants in the same background. Together, the libraries allow hierarchical screening of MGDs for different phenotypic followed by screening of SGDs within the target MGD regions. The mutants of these collections are stored at BEI Resources (www.beiresources.org) and publicly available. © 2014 Porwollik et al.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND Chronic pain is accompanied by a variety of alterations in body perception. Pain patients often exhibit distortions in the perception of limb positions and sizes: back pain patients have problems in delineating the outline of their backs and their body image is distorted in the painful area (Moseley, 2008). Patients with Complex Regional Pain Syndrome (CRPS) suffer from intense pain in their affected hand and often perceive it as being larger than it actually is (Moseley, 2005). Amputees often report pain in their amputated limb and the amount of pain seems to be related to distorted spatial perception of the limb (Grusser et al., 2001). Results from CRPS patients show that not only the perception of the body is affected, but that pain leads to a distorted perception of the peripersonal space surrounding the body (Reinersmann et al., 2011). At a more fundamental level, sensory changes associated with chronic pain states cannot be explained by peripheral deficits alone, rather, cortical representations seem to be involved as well. Research on how body perception and pain are linked to each other has been conducted from different and possibly overlapping perspectives. One line of research highlights the importance of attentional biases toward or away from the location of pain. Another approach underlines the role of multisensory representation of our body and the surrounding space in the perception of pain and nociceptive stimuli. Extending this latter view, there is also work focusing in particular on the complex interplay between motor action and pain perception. Experimental studies on the relationship between body perception and pain are contributing to our understanding of clinical findings and the development of new treatment approaches: nociceptive stimuli draw attention to their locations (Van Damme et al., 2007) and pain stimuli are perceived as less intense if attention is drawn away from their location (Van Ryckeghem et al., 2011). Vision of stimulated body parts reduces pain perception (Longo et al., 2009; Diers et al., 2013) and the larger the perceived size of a limb, the stronger is the effect (Mancini et al., 2011). Ongoing nociceptive input alters somatosensory localization (Trojan et al., 2009) and conflicts between frames of reference onto which somatosensory stimuli are localized modulate the perception of the stimuli (Gallace et al., 2011; Torta et al., 2013). Studies about the relationship between somatosensory inputs and motor planning suggest that visual–motor feedback leads to “peculiar” (and sometimes painful) sensations (McCabe et al., 2005). OVERVIEW OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS RESEARCH TOPIC In this Research Topic, three studies focused on the effect of painful or nociceptive stimulation on body representation and postural control. Bouffard et al. (2013) applied pain to the right arms of healthy participants and observed that the subjective body midline shifted to the right; non-painful vibration applied to the left arm also led to a right-shift. The pain-specific shift toward the stimulated side might be functionally beneficial to protect the painful area of the body. Steenbergen and collaborators assessed the agreement of spatial perceptual maps for touch and nociception and proposed that a common internal body representation can underlie spatial perception of touch and nociception (Steenbergen et al., 2012). Lelard and collaborators showed that imagining being in a painful situation induces changes in postural control and leg muscle activation, thus resulting in an increased stiffness compared to non-painful situations (Lelard et al., 2013). Anelli and colleagues did not study the effect of pain directly but explored the effect that potentially dangerous approaching stimuli have on motor responses: static neutral objects triggered faster responses compared to static dangerous ones (Anelli et al., 2013). Responses to dynamic objects were instead affected by the direction of the movement of the object. Two studies addressed the question of how changes in body representations affect pain processing. In a virtual reality study, Martini and colleagues demonstrated that pain thresholds could be top-down modulated by changing the color of a seen arm (Martini et al., 2013). Pia and collaborators showed that right-brain damaged patients could feel pain in response to a stimulus produced in a foreign arm that was subjectively experienced as their own (Pia et al., 2013). The interplay between movement, sensory feedback, and pain was specifically addressed by two studies. Foell and collaborators used a mirror setup in order to clarify the impact of sensory motor incongruence on pain perception (Foell et al., 2013). The results revealed that sensorimotor conflict affected perceived body integrity but was not sufficient to trigger substantial pain experiences in healthy volunteers. Meulders and colleagues induced pain-related fear of movements in healthy participants and demonstrated that this fear could be generalized to similar movements (Meulders et al., 2013). These findings may yield a better understanding of the role of fear and avoidance in chronic musculoskeletal pain.

We report the draft genome sequence of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi strain STH2370, isolated from a typhoid fever patient in Santiago, Chile. This clinical isolate has been used as the reference wild-type strain in numerous studies conducted in our laboratories during the last 15 years.

El siguiente artículo tiene por objetivo revisar la evolución del aprendizaje permanente y su vinculación al concepto de justicia social desde la perspectiva de la igualdad de oportunidades de género. Por lo cual, primeramente se hace una síntesis del desarrollo del concepto de aprendizaje permanente. Posteriormente, se da una mirada a los conceptos de justicia social y su vinculación a la educación. A lo largo de estos dos bloques teóricos, se resalta el papel fundamental que tienen a la hora de promover la igualdad de oportunidades de género

International audience; Despite the fact that the rubber hand illusion (RHI) is an experimental paradigm that has been widely used in the last 14 years to investigate different aspects of the sense of bodily self, very few studies have sought to investigate the subjective nature of the experience that the RHI evokes. The present study investigates the phenomenology of the RHI through a specific elicitation method. More particularly, this study aims at assessing whether the conditions usually used as control in the RHI have an impact in the sense of body ownership and at determining whether there are different stages in the emergence of the illusion. The results indicate that far from being "all or nothing," the illusion induced by the RHI protocol involves nuances in the type of perceptual changes that it creates. These perceptual changes affect not only the participants' perception of the rubber hand but also the perception of their real hand. In addition, perceptual effects may vary greatly between participants and, importantly, they evolve over time.