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The success of the traditional olive-growing sector in EU countries – characterised by high production costs and a low selling price for the oil – was mainly determined by EU subsidies available for the sector. With the opening of the "free trade" area and a cut in subsidies in 2014, crucial changes in the sector are now needed. In order to increase the competitiveness of EU olive production, attention should be given to new high-yielding, mechanized cultivation systems. In the 90s, Spain introduced new high-density planting systems (1,200-2,000 plants/ha) using three low-vigour and early-fruiting cultivars (‘Arbequina’, ‘Arbosana’ and ‘Koroneiki’). Italian olive production lies in a geographical area that stretches for about 6° in latitude (37°- 43° Latitude N) and in the band of altitude which ranges from sea level to 400 m a.s.l. A number of studies on the ecophysiology of woody plants show the importance of adapting the planting system to the climate of the cultivation site, particularly for high-density groves. The evaluation of cultivars suitable for high-density systems, based on their vegetative characteristics, branching and fruiting, together with an analysis of product quality, may contribute significantly to the development and diffusion of new crop growing systems. To achieve this aim, joint research was carried out by three different research units operating in the three main olive-growing regions of Italy (Sicily, Apulia and Umbria). This paper illustrates the first results (2010 and 2011) obtained by the PRIN Project on “Biological processes and environmental factors affecting the vegetative growth, fruiting and oil quality control in a super high density olive (Olea europaea L.) planting system”.

Abscisic acid (ABA) is associated with regulating plant adaptive responses to various environmental stresses. In particular, drought stress signals are transmitted through at least two pathways: one is abscisic acid (ABA)-dependent, and the other is ABA-independent. In the first case, drought stress increases the cellular ABA levels, which induces the expression of drought stress-responsive genes, such as 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED) and zeaxanthin epoxidase (ZEP). These genes belong to the carotenoid biosynthesis scenario. To date, most research of grapevines has focused on the physiological mechanisms of ABA during fruit ripening. Our interest is on studying the role of NCED and ZEP genes as candidate genes exhibiting up-regulation upon drought-stressed conditions. At the same time, several plant physiological parameters, such as leaf water status (Ψ1), net assimilation rate (A), stomatal conductance (gs), transpiration rate (E), and soil water potential (Ψs), were monitored. To explain the complex molecular pattern undergoing these physiological changes, we investigated the levels of expression of one candidate gene encoding for VvNCED1. The results provided evidence of a different transcriptional pattern of the gene between the control and stressed plants, leading to a major accumulation of NCED1 transcripts in the stressed plants.

SCHEDA N. 4 - IRRIGAZIONE E QUALITÀ DELLA PRODUZIONE AGRARIA La risposta qualitativa alla disponibilità idrica si contrappone alla risposta produttiva. Infatti, il regime idrico ottimale ai fini produttivi quasi mai coincide con l'optimum in termini di qualità della produzione (Fig. 1). Pertanto, per una programmazione irrigua sostenibile è necessario conciliare il livello produttivo con la qualità desiderata. La differente disponibilità idrica può agire a livello biochimico, fisiologico e morfologico, influenzando diversi attributi qualitativi in relazione alla specie e alla tipologia di prodotto (es.: granella, frutti, foglie). In generale, l'eccesso idrico favorisce il deterioramento qualitativo di molti frutti che presentano un minore contenuto di sostanza secca e di solidi solubili, il peggioramento delle caratteristiche organolettiche e una riduzione della shelf-life. Condizioni di limitato rifornimento idrico, invece, spesso migliorano diversi attributi qualitativi (Tab. 1), in relazione alla specie e alla fase fenologica in cui la limitazione idrica si verifica. Per il pomodoro, per esempio, si può osservare una riduzione lineare del contenuto di solidi solubili totali delle bacche in funzione della fase del ciclo colturale in cui viene interrotta l'irrigazione (Fig. 1). La gestione irrigua effettuata con i principi dello stress idrico controllato, pertanto, oltre a contribuire a ridurre il consumo di acqua e ad aumentare la sostenibilità ambientale della pratica irrigua, può rappresentare un valido strumento per ottenere prodotti di qualità, così come normalmente avviene nella produzione di uva da vino, delle olive da olio e per la frutta da consumo fresco (Sansavini et al., 2012).

Si riportano i risultati relativi ad un ciclo di misure eco-fisiologiche su una coltura di frumento duro (Triticum durum Desf.) nelle fasi fenologiche di post-antesi (10-23 Maggio 1993) per la determinazione dell'assimilazione netta (Ac), dell'evapotraspirazione (ETc) e dell'efficienza d'uso dell'acqua, utilizzando il metodo del Bilancio Energetico con il Rapporto di Bowen. Al fine di caratterizzare l'evoluzione dello stato idrico e dell'accrescimento della coltura, inoltre, sono stati rilevati l'umidità del suolo, il potenziale idrico fogliare di base (?b), l'indice di area fogliare (LAI) e la biomassa epigea. La prova sperimentale è stata condotta in una località costiera dell'Italia meridionale (Policoro, MT) nel periodo compreso tra la fioritura e la maturazione lattea, caratterizzato da un deficit idrico iniziale (?b = ?0,5 MPa) interrotto da piogge di notevole entità che hanno portato la coltura in condizioni di buon rifornimento idrico. All'inizio del ciclo di rilievi, Ac ed ETc sono oscillati, mediamente, intorno a 345 mmolCO2 m-2 d-1 e a 223H2O mol m-2 d-1, rispettivamente, con un'efficienza d'uso dell'acqua normalizzata ed espressa in termini di CO2 assimilata (WUEN) di 353 CO2 mmol m-2 d-1. Il miglioramento dello stato idrico del sistema suolo-pianta, in seguito agli eventi piovosi, ha fatto aumentare Ac, ETc e WUEN del 40, 23 e 43%, rispettivamente, per poi riportarsi sui valori iniziali alla fine del periodo delle misure, a causa sia della riduzione dell'umidità del terreno che del LAI. L'efficienza d'uso dell'acqua normalizzata ed espressa in termini di biomassa prodotta (bWUEN) si è mantenuta costante durante il periodo esaminato, con un valore pari a 14,8 g m-2, indipendentemente dalla disponibilità idrica del terreno, confermando il comportamento conservativo della bWUEN.

Al fine di evidenziare gli effetti della riduzione del fetch sui consumi idrici della bietola da zucchero stimati con il metodo del Rapporto di Bowen è stato ef-fettuato un confronto fra due condizioni di fetch (30 e 50 m). I valori di evapo-traspirazione ottenuti con tale metodologia sono stati successivamente comparati con valori di evapotraspirazione misurati con lisimetri a pesata. La prova è stata condotta in un ambiente costiero dell'Italia meridionale (Policoro, MT, 40°17' N, 4°25' E) in due cicli di misure, quando la coltura copriva, rispettivamente, l'80 ed il 100 % del terreno. Entrambe le situazioni di fetch in studio hanno fatto osservare valori di densità di flusso di calore latente e sensibile non idonei all'applicabilità del metodo del bilancio energetico. In particolare, l'apparato Bowen con fetch di 30 m ha fornito risultati peggiori rispetto a quello con fetch di 50 m, poichè lo spessore dello strato limite equilibrato è stato insufficiente a contenere i sensori superiori; ciò ha permesso di osservare nell'80 % dei casi fenomeni di avvezione locale. L'evapotraspirazione media dei due periodi di rilievi, stimata con il metodo del Rapporto di Bowen ( mm ed mm) è risultata inferiore del 32-40 % di quella misurata con lisimetro ( mm) dimostrando che entrambi i fetch sono stati inadeguati ai fini di una corretta de-terminazione dei consumi idrici della coltura nell'ambiente esaminato.

In 2006 and 2009, trials were carried out in the Apulia region in Southern Italy to evalu-ate the possibility of mechanizing olive harvesting in groves of old and very large trees. The trees belonged to the cultivars ‘Cellina di Nardò’ and ‘Ogliarola Salentina’. They were 60-100 years old and 7-9 m tall with a canopy volume of 140-360 m3. In the first half of November 2006, with a mechanical beater mounted on a tractor plus hand-held pneumatic combs, the harvesting yield was close to 90% of the total olives present in the canopy, and the harvesting working productivity was around 60 kg of harvested olives h-1 worker-1. With a self-propelled shaker attached to the main branches the harvesting yield was about 73% in ‘Cellina di Nardò’, and 40% in ‘Ogliarola Salentina’, while the harvesting working productivities were around 103 and 85 kg of harvested olives h-1 worker-1, respectively. In the second half of No-vember 2009, in ‘Cellina di Nardò’, with a mechanical beater mounted on a tractor plus nets on the ground or a catching frame (reversed umbrella) mounted on another tractor, the harvesting yield was about 97%. The working productivity was about 98 kg of harvested olives h-1 worker-1 with the mechanical beater plus nets and around 133 kg of harvested olives h-1 worker-1 when the mechanical beater was combined with a reversed umbrella. The oil obtained from the mechanically harvested olives was always of high quality. A basic economic evaluation of the harvesting costs is also reported.

The agricultural sector is facing a decrease in water supply and water quality at a global level and this is a problem that strictly affects all the Mediterranean olive growing areas. The aim of this work was to evaluate, for the first time, by NMR Spectroscopy and multivariate data analysis the metabolic profiling of the oils produced under different irrigation schemes. Arbosana olive oils were obtained from the use of saline reclaimed water (RW) and treated municipal wastewater (DW), combined with: full irrigation (FI) and regulated deficit irrigation (RDI). The results show a higher relative content of saturated fatty acids in EVOOs obtained from RDI strategy, regardless of the water source. Moreover, an increase in unsaturated fatty acids, a ω6/ω3 ratio content was observed in EVOOs obtained from RW when compared with DW water. Furthermore, the RW–RDI showed an increase in secoiridoid derivatives and hydroperoxides with respect to DW–RDI. A sustainable irrigation management, by combining a deficit irrigation strategy and saline reclaimed water source, could be crucial in order to overcome the problem of water scarcity and to guarantee the olive oil nutraceutical properties. The 1H NMR-based metabolomic approach proved a powerful and versatile tool for this specific investigation.

In order to study fig (Ficus carica L.) biodiversity in Southern Italy, a study was performed in a private Apulian collection, "I Giardini di Pomona", in which 350 different native and international cultivars were recovered in the last 15 years. This collection is located in middle part of Apulia region inside an area of great charm called "Valle D'Itria". In the region, fig is an important edible fruit tree species and it has been used for fresh fruit production, for centuries. Moreover, fig is considered as an important element of natural landscape and as significant cultural heritage. In this study, the Apulian breba cultivars, characterized by interesting agronomic traits, such as early ripening and fruit quality, were characterized by using morphological descriptors and microsatellite markers to unambiguously identify interesting genotypes. The genetic variability among different early ripening accessions located in the collection was investigated analyzing the polymorphism of 18 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. The SSR analysis showed a large genetic diversity among early ripening accessions and it was observed a high morphological variability, not always revealed by microsatellite markers. Several genotypes not characterized yet were found and this information is useful for agronomical valorisation of native early ripening fig cultivars in both national and international markets. This research evidenced the richness of the available genetic resources in the "Pomona" collection and it increased knowledge on fig characterization, in order to identify fig genotypes with appreciated commercial characteristics and suitable for extending the ripening season.

The sustainability of the traditional olive-growing sector in EU countries characterised by high production costs and a low selling price for the oil was mainly determined by EU subsidies available for the sector. With the opening of the free trade area by the Barcellona Declaration of 1995 and a cut in EU subsidies in 2014, crucial changes in the sector are now needed. In order to increase the competitiveness of EU olive production, attention should be given to new high-yielding and mechanized cultivation systems. In the 1990s, Spain introduced new high-density planting systems (1,200-2,000 trees/ha) using three low-vigour and early-fruiting cultivars ( Arbequina , Arbosana and Koroneiki ). Italian olive production lies in a geographical area that stretches for about 6° in latitude (37-43° latitude N) and in the band of altitude which ranges from sea level to 400 m a.s.l. Studies on the ecophysiology of woody plants show the importance of adapting the planting system to the climate of the cultivation site, particularly for high-density groves. The evaluation of cultivars suitable for high-density systems, based on their vegetative characteristics, branching and fruiting, together with an analysis of product quality, may contribute significantly to the development and diffusion of new crop growing systems. To achieve this aim, joint research was carried out by three different research units operating in the three main olive-growing regions of Italy (Sicily, Apulia and Umbria). This paper illustrates the first results (2010 and 2011) obtained by the PRIN Project on Biological processes and environmental factors affecting the vegetative growth, fruiting and oil quality control in a high density olive (Olea europaea L.) planting system .