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A rugged handheld sensor for rapid in-field classification of cannabis samples based on their THC content using ultra-compact near-infrared spectrometer technology is presented. The device is designed for use by the Austrian authorities to discriminate between legal and illegal cannabis samples directly at the place of intervention. Hence, the sensor allows direct measurement through commonly encountered transparent plastic packaging made from polypropylene or polyethylene without any sample preparation. The measurement time is below 20 s. Measured spectral data are evaluated using partial least squares discriminant analysis directly on the device's hardware, eliminating the need for internet connectivity for cloud computing. The classification result is visually indicated directly on the sensor via a colored LED. Validation of the sensor is performed on an independent data set acquired by non-expert users after a short introduction. Despite the challenging setting, the achieved classification accuracy is higher than 80%. Therefore, the handheld sensor has the potential to reduce the number of unnecessarily confiscated legal cannabis samples, which would lead to significant monetary savings for the authorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the past few years, there has been significant interest within the forensic community regarding the deployment of portable solutions that provide real‐time results. This article introduces an innovative technology or technology architecture that enables the integration of a handheld device, specifically, Viavi MicroNIR, with a cloud‐based system. This cloud system encompasses a server responsible for data processing and a mobile application acting as a user interface. To demonstrate the transformative impact of this technology on field operators, the analysis of cannabis specimens has been utilized. System's capacity to distinguish between CBD‐type and THC‐type cannabis has been particularly highlighted, along with the remarkable congruence observed between the near‐infrared (NIR) spectra and the reference analytical method involving ultra‐high‐performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) The article will present the advantages of this application primarily focusing on its potential to alleviate the burden on laboratories by expediting routine illicit drug analysis. Viavi MicroNIR technology provides laboratory personnel with additional time to handle more complex cases, thereby enhancing overall efficiency. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cannabis has been at the center of scientific attention for some years now. Since its pharmacological potential has been highlighted, cannabis has become a hot topic in research laboratories, leading to the publication of many scientific studies. Focusing on analytical chemistry, an enormous number of analytical methods for cannabinoid (CNB) determination have been published, involving various techniques. However, no globally accepted reference method for CNB determination has yet been chosen. This review aims to identify very recent analytical methods developed to analyze phytocannabinoids in cannabis herbal samples. For certain techniques, stagnation in terms of employed operational conditions can be observed. In this context, a reference method of analysis should be proposed and accepted worldwide to standardize CNB determination. In contrast, for other techniques, we are witnessing a scientific ferment, which is resulting in the development of new interesting analytical options. In this regard, particular focus has been given to these niche techniques, which are now emerging in the analytical panorama of cannabis analysis, offering new important perspectives for the future of cannabis testing. Supercritical fluid chromatography and infrared spectroscopy showed tangible advantages when applied to CNB determination in herbal samples. [Display omitted] • Analytical options for cannabinoid analysis in cannabis herbal samples are analyzed. • Recent trends about this topic are shown and discussed. • Focus on innovative techniques such as SFC and vibrational spectroscopy. • Pros & Cons for each technique are deeply discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marijuana components modulate a variety of immune response parameters. The cannabinoids delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and 11-hydroxy-tetrahydrocannabinol (11 OH-THC) are known to depress the in vitro proliferative response of murine lymphoid cells to the mitogens concanavalin A (Con A) and phytohemagglutinin (PHA). In the present report the effects of THC and 11 OH-THC on adult thymus and spleen cells were compared to effects on lymphoid cells of those organs from juvenile mice at various ages. The results demonstrate differences in susceptibility to cannabinoid-induced suppression by lymphoid cells from different organs and different age mice. In adults, thymus cells were suppressed more readily than spleen cells. Splenocytes from mice under 2 weeks old were suppressed much more readily than those from older mice. Cell populations from organs with higher proportions of L3T4+/Lyt2- cells were more difficult to suppress. The possible mechanisms involved and directions for future work are discussed.

The tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content of more than 180 samples of fresh illicit Cannabis products, seized by H.M. Customs and Excise on entry into Great Britain and Northern Ireland over the period 1984-1989, has been determined by gas chromatography. The average THC content of herbal cannabis remained high due to good quality cannabis from Jamaica and the USA, but that of cannabis resin was slightly lower. Resin from Morocco has changed significantly in its physical appearance. There was no fresh seizure of cannabis oil in this period.

Immunoassay procedures, both enzyme immunoassay and radioimmunoassay, continue to be widely used to screen samples for recent marijuana use by analyzing the urine samples for 11-nor-delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (11-nor-delta 9-THC-9-COOH) (the major urinary metabolite of delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol [delta 9-THC]). Using commercially available immunoassay reagents, the cross-reactivity of the antiserum utilized in Abbott's TDx cannabinoid assay (a fluorescence polarization immunoassay) was evaluated. This cross-reactivity was evaluated against a group of cannabinoids and noncannabinoid phenolic constituents of Cannabis, some cannabinoid metabolites, and other agents that appear in normal urine samples. In general, the antiserum was equally reactive toward 11-nor-delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid, its glucuronide, and the corresponding delta 8-isomer, which was the acid moiety utilized in standards and controls of the assay prior to January, 1990. Reduced binding to the antiserum was observed with hydroxylated derivatives of delta 9- and delta 8-THC, and the other cannabinoids, in general, exhibited limited binding potentials toward the antibody. For the noncannabinoid constituents, no binding was observed at the highest concentrations evaluated (40 mg/L).

Cannabinoids from three samples of cannabis obtained from the Pitt-Rivers Museum, Oxford, and dating from the turn of the century were examined by gas chromatography and mass spectometry for the presence of cannabinoids. Although the samples were from different geographical locations, the profiles of constituent cannabinoids were similar. In common with other aged material, most of the cannabinoid content was present as cannabinol (CBN), the main chemical degradation product of the major psychoactive constituent, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-THC). However, a substantial concentration of CBN acid-A was also present; this compound is unstable to heat and readily undergoes decarboxylation to CBN. Methyl and propyl homologues of CBN, together with delta-9-THC and its naturally occurring acid-A were also found at low concentrations in all samples. Intermediates in the formation of CBN from delta-9-THC, previously identified in aged solutions of the drug, were absent or present in only trace concentrations. However, oxidation products involving hydroxylation at the benzylic positions, C-11 and C-1', not seen in solution, were identified in substantial abundance. The results suggest that decomposition of cannabis samples may proceed more slowly than originally thought.

Previous work in our laboratory has shown that Cannabis sativa (marijuana) contains water-soluble, high molecular weight components that have extremely potent intraocular pressure (IOP) lowering activity. Aqueous extraction of other plants has now shown that a number of them also contain components with potent IOP lowering activity in rabbits. These include tobacco, cabbage, lettuce, several greens, Senecio anonymus, Erigeron philadelphicus, and several others. Not all plants tested were active, however, indicating that while more ubiquitous than originally thought, these materials are not apparently extractable from all plants. The chemical composition of the active fraction from tobacco was found to be different from that derived from Cannabis sativa.

A six-month survey of the urinary concentrations of drugs and alcohol of 176 patients within one hour of their admission to the acute psychiatric wards of the Macquarie Hospital, Sydney, is reported. Non-prescribed drugs were detected in the urine specimens of 29.5% of patients and alcohol in the urine specimens of 13.6% of patients. The survey demonstrated inconsistencies between patients' reports of their recent drug or alcohol intake and the laboratory findings, and inadequacies in the information recorded and relayed to the laboratory at the time of patients' admission to the hospital.

Samples taken from seizures of illicitly imported cannabis and cannabis resin of known geographical origin have been examined by thin-layer chromatography. The chromatographic characteristics were considered in conjunction with the gross physical appearance of the materials and it was found possible to discriminate between samples of different origin. Thus by carrying out thin-layer chromatography and a visual inspection on a sample of unknown provenance, an opinion as to its geographical origin can be offered. Extensive use is made of a reference collection of samples.

Both anticoagulants (heparin and streptokinase) and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory compounds (aspirin and indomethacin) were used against a water-soluble derivative of marihuana, MDM. While the anticoagulants had no effect on the ocular effects of MDM, both aspirin and indomethacin altered the time course and effected the MDM-induced reduction of intraocular pressure. The usual initial hypertensive effect of intravenous MDM was eliminated and the later intraocular pressure fall occurred earlier as well as being inhibited by about 35 to 50%. Assay for prostaglandins revealed that intravenous MDM (3.86 micrograms) caused a marked rise in PGE2 concentration of the aqueous humor and iris-ciliary body during the first hour or two after administration of MDM, but normal values occurred at 4, 6, and 8 hours when the intraocular pressure is reduced by up to 60%. Following intravitreal MDM (0.002 microgram), however, the PGE2 levels remained unchanged over 24 hours, despite the induction of a fall in intraocular pressure between 14 and 18 hours which lasts for many hours. Prostaglandin appears to be involved in the hypertensive phase of intraocular pressure change after intravenous MDM injection; and, while the fall in intraocular pressure may contain a component partially mediated by prostaglandins, there is no evidence that intravitreal MDM induces any effect on prostaglandin levels. The involvement of prostaglandins, therefore, in the mediation of MDM-induced ocular hypotensive effects is apparently small.

Gland number and cannabinoid content for three clones of Cannabis were compared. Cannabinoid levels and mature glands were quantified throughout progressive stages of pistillate bract development in order to define possible interrelationships between glands and cannabinoids. Similar trends occurred among the clones for each gland type while individual cannabinoids displayed a different pattern in each clone. Gland initiation and development as well as cannabinoid synthesis were found to occur during bract ontogeny for all three clones. A positive correlation existed for the total number of capitate glands per bract compared to the total cannabinoid content of the bract. The study also suggested that the glands may contain the majority of the cannabinoids present in the bract.

Marijuana is not a plant. It is a crude drug made from the Cannabis plant. Many other crude drugs are also made from this plant. Their chemical composition varies with the plant parts used in producing the particular drug. This paper describes the chemical composition of Cannabis, the uses to which these chemicals are put in the manufacture of crude drugs, and the effects of these drugs.

Four different cannabinoids were converted to their 1-dimethyl-aminonaphthalene-5-sulfonate (dansyl) derivatives. Standards mixtures were separated by high pressure liquid chromatography and detected with an experimental filter fluorometer with sub-nanogram sensitivity. The effect of solvent properties on fluorescence spectra and quantum yields was also studied.

Authors investigated some fiber and some hashish hemp sorts concerning their trichomes on the leaves. Histochemical reactions were developed using the Fast Blue Salt (FBB) reagent applied so far only thin layer chromatography. Glandular hairs were found giving positive reactions due to cannabinoids contained by the cells. The electron microscopic features were studied and the cannabinoid content was measured with GC. A correlation was found between the number of typical glandular hairs and cannabinoid content.

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) induced catalepsy in mice, whereas a cannabis oil (6.68% w/w THC), four cannabinoids and a synthetic mixture did not. Cannabinol (CBN) and olivetol inhibited THC-induced catalepsy in the mornings and the evenings, but cannabidiol (CBD) exhibited this effect only in the evenings. A combination of CBN and CBD inhibited THC-induced catalepsy equal to that of CBN alone in the mornings, but this inhibition was greater than that produced by CBN alone in the evenings.

A radioimmunoassay (R.I.A.), using a sheep antiserum and 3-H-T.H.C., has been developed for the measurement of tetrahydrocannabinol (T.H.C.) in plasma and urine. The antiserum cross-reacts with T.H.C. metabolites, but nevertheless possesses sufficient group specificity and sensitivity to permit measurement of cannabinoids in plasma and urine of animals and volunteers following the administration of pure T.H.C. Subjective effects experienced by the volunteers seemed to correlate with plasma-T.H.C. levels. The examination of random plasma urine samples collected from patients attending a drug-addiction clinic revealed the presence of measurable amounts of cannabinoids in several of them.

Recent physiological and pharmacological data pertinent to aqueous humor inflow regulation have been reviewed. New anatomical and electrophysiological data are presented, particularly related to aqueous humor secretion. The action of adrenergic agonists and antagonists is discussed in relation to changes in intraocular pressure, and the effects of a variety of experimental perturbations is presented. The multiple factors which affect aqueous humor inflow are discussed in the context of an evaluation of recent pertinent literature.

The structures of 2 new polyhydroxylated cannabinoids, (+/-)9,10-dihydroxy-delta6a(10a)-tetrahydrocannabinol and (+/-)8,9-dihydroxy-delta6a(10a)-tetrahydrocannabinol, obtained from a hexane extract of an Indian Cannabis variant were determined by spectral means and correlation with cannabinol.

The percentage rate of change into cannabinoids (Cannabidiol [CBD], tetrahydrocannabinol [THC] and cannabinol [CBN]) was higher in cannabis samples than in the extracts. This is probalby due to the decomposition of acids into corresponding neutral cannabinoids under the conditions of storage. Previous claims that CBD content in plant material is relatively constant are not substantiated by our results. There was a 1.0-2.5-fold increase in CBD content in plant material compared with the extracts. However, the fact that there was no appreciable increase in CBD/CBN content in the stored extracts of the same samples supports the view that the step-wise extraction does not bring the acids into the final extract pure delta 9THC decomposed at a rate of 41 per cent per year under tropical storage conditions. The delta 9THC content decreased in the samples and equally in the extracts though 100 per cent conversion of THC to CBN does not take place. The higher CBN content found in extracts than that expected by the conversion THC to CBN is a result of metabolic conversion.

The sweet odor of marihuana is of interest for instrumental monitoring of illicit drug traffic and for applications in forensic work. Headspace volatiles of marihuana and hashish of different origin are examined by gas chromatography, and relative compositions of 24 samples are compared. No correlation between volatile make up and geography was found, but the profiling procedures are shown to be of use in the forensic problem of relating samples to a common source.

The cannabinoids produce a variety of effects on unlearned behavior in different animal species. The voluminous literature pertaining to cannabis and unlearned behavior has been reviewed in the five previous Marihuana and Health Reports (1971 through 1975). The present chapter relies heavily on these previous reports for background and focuses primarily on the relevant literature which has appeared during the past two years, although a continuing attempt is made to consider the more recent literature in the context of previous findings. As in the 1975 Marihuana and Health Report, the present chapter is organized for expository purposes around four categories of unlearned behavior: gross behavior; activity and exploration; consummatory behavior; and aggressive behavior.

One hundred and seventy-six plants of 22 different lots of Cannabis sativa L., grown at the Botanical Garden of Siena (Italy) were chromatographically analysed in order to define the cannabinoid content in their leaves. The content of the major cannabinoids, delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, cannabinol and cannabichromene, determined weekly in vegetative and floral leaves enabled the determination of the chemical types of the plants, according to Turner's classification. The plants were easily distinguishable in drug, intermediate and fiber types. The cannabinoid characteristic of each type remains predominant, as compared with the other cannabinoids, throughout the whole period of growth, including the floral stage and after harvesting. On this basis, the predominant concentration of a specific cannabinoid can be used reliably for forensic application concerning drug-suspected material in very young plants.

The narcotics laboratory at the national level identifies drugs for abuse and their accompanying substances in suspected samples, determines the purity and the possible origin of illicit drugs, carries out drug-related research, particularly on new sources of drugs liable to abuse, and, when required by the police or courts of law, provides supportive expertise in drug trafficking cases. Precaution must be taken to ensure that samples to be examined are representative. The university is a particularly appropriate setting for the location of a narcotics laboratory, especially if such a laboratory carries out complex work requiring assistance from other professional disciplines. Before new laboratory equipment is purchased, a careful study of requirements and financial resources should be made to ensure economical and optimum utilization of such equipment. In some situations the use of simple techniques, such as thin-layer chromatography, can be sufficient, while in others more sophisticated techniques may be required. Appropriate training of personnel is of particular importance for the effective functioning of a narcotics laboratory. The laboratory of the Department of Toxicology and Forensic Chemistry, University of Buenos Aires, provides for the training of personnel at three levels: The first level consists of basic training, which includes the use of kits for rapid identification of drugs in field conditions, for personnel from the police, gendarmerie, prefecture, customs and other agencies which deal with drug problems, but which have no previous skills in laboratory techniques; The second level is provided for professional laboratory personnel and usually lasts six months; The third level consists of two years' postgraduate university training for students who are expected to carry out complex laboratory work; an additional year is provided for trainees who are expected to assume responsibility in a laboratory unit.

Dagga (Cannabis sativa L.) samples were collected from various geographical regions of South Africa. These were classified into age, sex and plant part and the cannabinoids were analysed quantitatively by gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry. Analytical results show that there appears to be at least three chemovariants of Cannabis sativa growing in South Africa with respect to relative cannabinoid content. One of these variants appears to be unique to Southern Africa. It also appears that South African C. sativa ranks among the world's more potent C. sativa variants in terms of its delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol content.