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The current best evidence meta-analysis reanalyzed the data from a meta-analysis by Graham et al. (J Educ Psychol 115:1004–1027, 2023). This meta-analysis and the prior one examined if teaching writing improved the writing of students in Grades 6 to 12, examining effects from writing intervention studies employing experimental and quasi-experimental designs (with pretests). In contrast to the prior meta-analysis, we eliminated all N of 1 treatment/control comparisons, studies with an attrition rate over 20%, studies that did not control for teacher effects, and studies that did not contain at least one reliable writing measure (0.70 or greater). Any writing outcome that was not reliable was also eliminated. Across 148 independent treatment/control comparisons, yielding 1,076 writing effect sizes (ESs) involving 22,838 students, teaching writing resulted in a positive and statistically detectable impact on students’ writing (ES = 0.38). Further, six of the 10 writing treatments tested in four or more independent comparisons improved students’ performance. This included the process approach to writing (0.75), strategy instruction (0.59), transcription instruction (0.54), feedback (0.30), pre-writing activities (0.32), and peer assistance (0.59). In addition, the Self-Regulated Strategy Development model for teaching writing strategies yielded a statistically significant ES of 0.84, whereas other approaches to teaching writing strategies resulted in a statistically significant ES of 0.51. The findings from this meta-analysis and the Graham et al. (2023) review which included studies that were methodologically weaker were compared. Implications for practice, research, and theory are presented.

There is considerable concern that many adolescents do not attain the writing competence needed to be successful in school, their personal lives, or the workplace. Ensuring that students acquire this competence is a basic responsibility of schools. In order to meet this objective, teachers need access to effective practices for teaching writing. In this meta-analysis, we examined if teaching writing improved the writing and reading of students in Grades 6-12, and what specific writing treatments enhanced students' writing. Our review included writing treatments tested using an experimental or quasi-experimental design (with pretests) and published and unpublished studies, and computed effect sizes (ESs) for all writing and reading outcomes assessed. Across 406 independent comparisons, yielding 3,514 ESs involving 52,529 students, teaching writing had a positive and statistically detectable impact on students' writing (ES = 0.47) and reading (ES = 0.22). Moreover, a variety of different writing treatments improved students' performance on writing measures. Across all writing outcomes, statistically detectable effects (presented in parentheses) were obtained for comprehensive writing programs (0.47; which included the process approach to writing), strategy instruction (0.76), digital writing tools (0.31), transcription instruction (0.71), computer-assisted instruction (0.32), teaching critical/creative thinking skills for writing (0.27), emulating good models of writing (0.46), feedback (0.34), goal setting (0.44), prewriting activities (0.49), grammar instruction (0.77), sentence instruction (0.73), inquiry (0.92), observing writers/readers, peer assistance (0.41), summarization instruction (0.49), and text structure instruction (0.39). Implications for practice, research, and theory are discussed.

In this study, we examined the relation of observed classroom practices to language and literacy achievement and the moderation of this relation for students from pre-K to sixth grade. A total of 136 studies (N = 107,882 participants) met the inclusion criteria, of which 108 studies were included for meta-analysis and the other 28 studies were narratively synthesized. The average zero-order (r = 0.12) and partial correlations (r[subscript p] = 0.04) were statistically significant but weak in magnitude. The relation was slightly weaker in upper than in lower grade levels, and stronger for observations capturing macro quality and instructional dimension than those capturing micro measurement and emotional or structural dimension, respectively. The relation did not vary by observation duration, frequency, adopted statistical approach, or type of covariates. Taken together with the narrative synthesis, the results highlight the complex nature of classroom observation and a need for more classroom research, particularly on higher grade levels. [For corresponding grantee submission, see ED624703.]

Retell is used widely as a measure of reading comprehension. In this meta-analysis, we evaluated the relation between retell and other measures of reading comprehension among students in Grades 1-12. Data from 23 studies (82 effect sizes; N = 4705 participants) showed a moderate relation between retell and other measures of reading comprehension, r = 0.46. Moderation analyses revealed that the relation was stronger when reading comprehension was measured by cloze or maze tasks than when measured using a multiple-choice format. In addition, the relation was weaker in higher grades, but this was largely explained by text genre or the number of prompts in retell. The relation between 'oral' retell and reading comprehension was stronger with a greater number of prompts provided during retell tests. In contrast, results did not differ by other features of retell such as reading mode (oral or silent), text genres of retell (narrative or informational), or use of different oral retell evaluation methods (e.g., number of words or ideas, overall quality). Overall, the moderate magnitude of the relation between retell and other measures of reading comprehension indicates caution for using retell as the sole measure of reading comprehension. The results also indicate a need for a better understanding about more systematic approaches to retell assessment (e.g., number and kind of prompts in the case of oral retell) as a measure of reading comprehension.

Developing informative writing skills at the elementary level is critical for long-term academic and personal success. This study investigated impacts of a schoolwide implementation of Self-Regulated Strategy Development (SRSD) in inclusive classes to improve elementary students' informative writing and teachers' efficacy and perceptions of teaching SRSD for writing. Eighteen kindergarten through fifth-grade teachers participated in professional development and implemented SRSD with 276 students. Multilevel modeling was used to examine how students' improvement in writing performance varied by their gender, classification (general education -- receiving no additional services, receiving special education services, English Learners [ELs], and special education and EL), and number of lessons received. Student writing was scored for genre elements, holistic quality, total words written, and transition words. Results demonstrate that students in all grades improved on all measures. Gain scores of informative genre elements, holistic quality, and transition words remained significant even after controlling for student gender, classification, and the number of lessons received. In addition, teachers reported feeling more confident and skillful in teaching writing through SRSD.

In this study, we examined the relation of observed classroom practices to language and literacy achievement and the moderation of this relation for students from pre-K to sixth grade. A total of 136 studies (N = 107,882 participants) met the inclusion criteria, of which 108 studies were included for meta-analysis and the other 28 studies were narratively synthesized. The average zero-order (r =.12) and partial correlations (rp =.04) were statistically significant but weak in magnitude. The relation was slightly weaker in upper than in lower grade levels, and stronger for observations capturing macro quality and instructional dimension than those capturing micro measurement and emotional or structural dimension, respectively. The relation did not vary by observation duration, frequency, adopted statistical approach, or type of covariates. Taken together with the narrative synthesis, the results highlight the complex nature of classroom observation and a need for more classroom research, particularly on higher grade levels.

Effective and equitable CS [computer science] teaching is contingent on teachers' robust understanding of equity issues in CS classrooms. To this end, this study examined high school teachers' perceptions of equity during their participation in a CS teacher certificate program over two years. The participants are from various disciplines and from schools that serve under-represented students. Using a qualitative approach, we conducted content analysis of the teachers' written reflections and responses to semi-structured interviews. Based on the justice-centered framework, we analyzed the major themes that emerged from the content analysis. The findings provide insights into high school CS teachers' understanding of equity, the strategies that teachers use to address equity issues, and how teachers interpret the causes of inequities in CS classrooms. This research presents frameworks for examining teachers' conceptualizations of equity and can inform the implementation of future professional development programs for CS teachers.