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Congenital heart defects (CHDs) rank among the most common birth defects, presenting diverse phenotypes. Genetic and environmental factors are critical in molding the process of cardiogenesis. However, these factors' interactions are not fully comprehended. Hence, this study aimed to identify and characterize differentially expressed genes involved in CHD development through bioinformatics pipelines. We analyzed experimental datasets available in genomic databases, using transcriptome, gene enrichment, and systems biology strategies. Network analysis based on genetic and phenotypic ontologies revealed that EP300, CALM3, and EGFR genes facilitate rapid information flow, while NOTCH1, TNNI3, and SMAD4 genes are significant mediators within the network. Differential gene expression (DGE) analysis identified 2513 genes across three study types, (1) Tetralogy of Fallot (ToF); (2) Hypoplastic Left Heart Syndrome (HLHS); and (3) Trisomy 21/CHD, with LYVE1, PLA2G2A, and SDR42E1 genes found in three of the six studies. Interaction networks between genes from ontology searches and the DGE analysis were evaluated, revealing interactions in ToF and HLHS groups, but none in Trisomy 21/CHD. Through enrichment analysis, we identified immune response and energy generation as some of the relevant ontologies. This integrative approach revealed genes not previously associated with CHD, along with their interactions and underlying biological processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Simple Summary: During the embryonic development of vertebrates, the heart is the first organ to develop through cardiogenesis, a specialized and complex process that include several morphogenetic pathways. Any disruption that influences the onset expression of key role genes could impact the correct development of the heart and, consequently, the presence of congenital heart diseases (CHDs). These CHDs are defined as structural and conduction abnormalities and are considered to have multifactorial etiology. Within these malformations, the septal defects such as ventricular (VSD) and atrial septal defects (ASD), are the most common forms of CHDs. Studies have reported that CHDs are the result of genetic and environmental factors. Here, we review and summarize the role of genetics involved in cardiogenesis and congenital cardiac septal defects. Congenital heart diseases (CHDs) are a group of complex diseases characterized by structural and functional malformations during development in the human heart; they represent an important problem for public health worldwide. Within these malformations, septal defects such as ventricular (VSD) and atrial septal defects (ASD) are the most common forms of CHDs. Studies have reported that CHDs are the result of genetic and environmental factors. Here, we review and summarize the role of genetics involved in cardiogenesis and congenital cardiac septal defects. Moreover, treatment regarding these congenital cardiac septal defects is also addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Oxytocin (OXT) is a neurohypophysial nonapeptide that exerts its effects mainly through the oxytocin receptor (OXTR). Several studies have pointed out the role of OXT in the modulation of stem cell (SC) fate and properties. SCs are undifferentiated cells characterized by a remarkable ability to self-renew and differentiate into various cell types of the body. In this review, we focused on the role of OXT in SC differentiation. Specifically, we summarize and discuss the scientific research examining the effects of OXT on mesodermal SC-derived lineages, including cardiac, myogenic, adipogenic, osteogenic, and chondrogenic differentiation. The available studies related to the effects of OXT on SC differentiation provide little insights about the molecular mechanism mediated by the OXT–OXTR pathway. Further research is needed to fully elucidate these pathways to effectively modulate SC differentiation and develop potential therapeutic applications in regenerative medicine.

Abstract Compared to classical techniques of morphological analysis, micro-CT (μ-CT) has become an effective approach allowing rapid screening of morphological changes. In the present work, we aimed to provide an optimized micro-CT dense agent perfusion protocol and μ-CT guidelines for different stages of chick embryo cardiogenesis. Our study was conducted over a period of 10 embryonic days (Hamburger-Hamilton HH36) in chick embryo hearts. During the perfusion of the micro-CT dense agent at different developmental stages (HH19, HH24, HH27, HH29, HH31, HH34, HH35, and HH36), we demonstrated that durations and volumes of the injected contrast agent gradually increased with the heart developmental stages contrary to the flow rate that was unchanged during the whole experiment. Analysis of the CT imaging confirmed the efficiency of the optimized parameters of the heart perfusion.

Using four-dimensional whole-embryo light sheet imaging with improved and accessible computational tools, we longitudinally reconstruct early murine cardiac development at single-cell resolution. Nascent mesoderm progenitors form opposing density and motility gradients, converting the temporal birth sequence of gastrulation into a spatial anterolateral-to-posteromedial arrangement. Migrating precardiac mesoderm does not strictly preserve cellular neighbor relationships, and spatial patterns only become solidified as the cardiac crescent emerges. Progenitors undergo a mesenchymal-to-epithelial transition, with a first heart field (FHF) ridge apposing a motile juxta-cardiac field (JCF). Anchored along the ridge, the FHF epithelium rotates the JCF forward to form the initial heart tube, along with push-pull morphodynamics of the second heart field. In Mesp1 mutants that fail to make a cardiac crescent, mesoderm remains highly motile but directionally incoherent, resulting in density gradient inversion. Our practicable live embryo imaging approach defines spatial origins and behaviors of cardiac progenitors and identifies their unanticipated morphological transitions.

In vitro studies have demonstrated that the differentiation of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) into cardiomyocytes requires activation of caspases through the mitochondrial pathway. These studies have relied on synthetic substrates for activity measurements, which can be misleading due to potential none‐specific hydrolysis of these substrates by proteases other than caspases. Hence, caspase‐9 and caspase‐3 activation are investigated during the differentiation of human ESCs (hESCs) by directly assessing caspase‐9 and ‐3 cleavage. Western blot reveals the presence of the cleaved caspase‐9 prior to and during the differentiation of human ESCs (hESCs) into cardiomyocytes at early stages, which diminishes as the differentiation progresses, without cleavage and activation of endogenous procaspase‐3. Activation of exogenous procaspase‐3 by endogenous caspase‐9 and subsequent cleavage of chromogenic caspase‐3 substrate i.e. DEVD‐pNA during the course of differentiation confirmes that endogenous caspase‐9 has the potency to recognize and activate procaspase‐3, but for reasons that are unknown to us fails to do so. These observations suggest the existence of distinct mechanisms of caspase regulation in differentiation as compared to apoptosis. Bioinformatics analysis suggests the presence of caspase‐9 regulators, which may influence proteolytic function under specific conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Compared to classical techniques of morphological analysis, micro-CT (μ-CT) has become an effective approach allowing rapid screening of morphological changes. In the present work, we aimed to provide an optimized micro-CT dense agent perfusion protocol and μ-CT guidelines for different stages of chick embryo cardiogenesis. Our study was conducted over a period of 10 embryonic days (Hamburger-Hamilton HH36) in chick embryo hearts. During the perfusion of the micro-CT dense agent at different developmental stages (HH19, HH24, HH27, HH29, HH31, HH34, HH35, and HH36), we demonstrated that durations and volumes of the injected contrast agent gradually increased with the heart developmental stages contrary to the flow rate that was unchanged during the whole experiment. Analysis of the CT imaging confirmed the efficiency of the optimized parameters of the heart perfusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Congenital heart diseases (CHDs) are a group of complex diseases characterized by structural and functional malformations during development in the human heart; they represent an important problem for public health worldwide. Within these malformations, septal defects such as ventricular (VSD) and atrial septal defects (ASD) are the most common forms of CHDs. Studies have reported that CHDs are the result of genetic and environmental factors. Here, we review and summarize the role of genetics involved in cardiogenesis and congenital cardiac septal defects. Moreover, treatment regarding these congenital cardiac septal defects is also addressed.

The role of erythropoietin (EPO) has extended beyond hematopoiesis to include cytoprotection, inotropy, and neurogenesis. Extra-renal EPO has been reported for multiple tissue/cell types, but the physiological relevance remains unknown. Although the EPO receptor is expressed by multiple cardiac cell types and human recombinant EPO increases contractility and confers cytoprotection against injury, whether the heart produces physiologically meaningful amounts of EPO in vivo is unclear. We show a distinct circadian rhythm of cardiac EPO mRNA expression in adult mice and increased mRNA expression during embryogenesis, suggesting physiological relevance to cardiac EPO production throughout life. We then generated constitutive, cardiomyocyte-specific EPO knockout mice driven by the Mlc2v promoter (EPOfl/fl:Mlc2v-cre+/−; EPOΔ/Δ-CM). During cardiogenesis, cardiac EPO mRNA expression and cellular proliferation were reduced in EPOΔ/Δ-CM hearts. However, in adult EPOΔ/Δ- CM mice, total heart weight was preserved through increased cardiomyocyte cross-sectional area, indicating the reduced cellular proliferation was compensated for by cellular hypertrophy. Echocardiography revealed no changes in cardiac dimensions, with modest reductions in ejection fraction, stroke volume, and tachycardia, whereas invasive hemodynamics showed increased cardiac contractility and lusitropy. Paradoxically, EPO mRNA expression in the heart was elevated in adult EPOΔ/Δ-CM, along with increased serum EPO protein content and hematocrit. Using RNA fluorescent in situ hybridization, we found that Epo RNA colocalized with endothelial cells in the hearts of adult EPOΔ/Δ-CM mice, identifying the endothelial cells as a cell responsible for the EPO hyper-expression. Collectively, these data identify the first physiological roles for cardiomyocyte-derived EPO. We have established cardiac EPO mRNA expression is a complex interplay of multiple cell types, where loss of embryonic cardiomyocyte EPO production results in hyper-expression from other cells within the adult heart. [Display omitted] • Cardiac EPO expression exhibits circadian rhythm in adult mice. • EPO plays a relevant role in cardiogenesis. • There is a compensatory hyper-expression of EPO in EPOΔ/Δ-CM mice. • Endothelial cells are a source of EPO hyper-expression in adult mouse LV. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Background Cardiac Myxoma is a primary tumor of heart. Its origins, rarity of the occurrence of primary cardiac tumors and how it may be related to limited cardiac regenerative potential, are not yet entirely known. This study investigates the key cardiac genes/ transcription factors (TFs) and signaling pathways to understand these important questions. Methods Databases including PubMed, MEDLINE, and Google Scholar were searched for published articles without any date restrictions, involving cardiac myxoma, cardiac genes/TFs/signaling pathways and their roles in cardiogenesis, proliferation, differentiation, key interactions and tumorigenesis, with focus on cardiomyocytes. Results The cardiac genetic landscape is governed by a very tight control between proliferation and differentiation-related genes/TFs/pathways. Cardiac myxoma originates possibly as a consequence of dysregulations in the gene expression of differentiation regulators including Tbx5, GATA4, HAND1/2, MYOCD, HOPX, BMPs. Such dysregulations switch the expression of cardiomyocytes into progenitor-like state in cardiac myxoma development by dysregulating Isl1, Baf60 complex, Wnt, FGF, Notch, Mef2c and others. The Nkx2–5 and MSX2 contribute predominantly to both proliferation and differentiation of Cardiac Progenitor Cells (CPCs), may possibly serve roles based on the microenvironment and the direction of cell circuitry in cardiac tumorigenesis. The Nkx2–5 in cardiac myxoma may serve to limit progression of tumorigenesis as it has massive control over the proliferation of CPCs. The cardiac cell type-specific genetic programming plays governing role in controlling the tumorigenesis and regenerative potential. Conclusion The cardiomyocytes have very limited proliferative and regenerative potential. They survive for long periods of time and tightly maintain the gene expression of differentiation genes such as Tbx5, GATA4 that interact with tumor suppressors (TS) and exert TS like effect. The total effect such gene expression exerts is responsible for the rare occurrence and benign nature of primary cardiac tumors. This prevents the progression of tumorigenesis. But this also limits the regenerative and proliferative potential of cardiomyocytes. Cardiac Myxoma develops as a consequence of dysregulations in these key genes which revert the cells towards progenitor-like state, hallmark of CM. The CM development in carney complex also signifies the role of TS in cardiac cells.

Background: Cardiac Myxoma is a primary tumor of heart. Its origins, rarity of the occurrence of primary cardiac tumors and how it may be related to limited cardiac regenerative potential, are not yet entirely known. This study investigates the key cardiac genes/ transcription factors (TFs) and signaling pathways to understand these important questions. Methods: Databases including PubMed, MEDLINE, and Google Scholar were searched for published articles without any date restrictions, involving cardiac myxoma, cardiac genes/TFs/signaling pathways and their roles in cardiogenesis, proliferation, differentiation, key interactions and tumorigenesis, with focus on cardiomyocytes. Results: The cardiac genetic landscape is governed by a very tight control between proliferation and differentiation-related genes/TFs/pathways. Cardiac myxoma originates possibly as a consequence of dysregulations in the gene expression of differentiation regulators including Tbx5, GATA4, HAND1/2, MYOCD, HOPX, BMPs. Such dysregulations switch the expression of cardiomyocytes into progenitor-like state in cardiac myxoma development by dysregulating Isl1, Baf60 complex, Wnt, FGF, Notch, Mef2c and others. The Nkx2–5 and MSX2 contribute predominantly to both proliferation and differentiation of Cardiac Progenitor Cells (CPCs), may possibly serve roles based on the microenvironment and the direction of cell circuitry in cardiac tumorigenesis. The Nkx2–5 in cardiac myxoma may serve to limit progression of tumorigenesis as it has massive control over the proliferation of CPCs. The cardiac cell type-specific genetic programming plays governing role in controlling the tumorigenesis and regenerative potential. Conclusion: The cardiomyocytes have very limited proliferative and regenerative potential. They survive for long periods of time and tightly maintain the gene expression of differentiation genes such as Tbx5, GATA4 that interact with tumor suppressors (TS) and exert TS like effect. The total effect such gene expression exerts is responsible for the rare occurrence and benign nature of primary cardiac tumors. This prevents the progression of tumorigenesis. But this also limits the regenerative and proliferative potential of cardiomyocytes. Cardiac Myxoma develops as a consequence of dysregulations in these key genes which revert the cells towards progenitor-like state, hallmark of CM. The CM development in carney complex also signifies the role of TS in cardiac cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study aims to describe the development of the heart in Podocnemis expansa during the incubation period and immediately after hatching. A total of 108 embryonic hearts and five hearts from freshly hatched individuals (1st day post-hatching) were fixed and processed for light and ultrastructural microscopy analysis, respectively. The primitive heart was observed on the 5th day of incubation, featuring only a sinus venosus, an atrial chamber, and a ventricle containing small trabeculae, while atria were observed only from the 10th day onwards. On the 13th day, the ventricular cavity was visualized, differentiating into the venosum, arteriosum, and pulmonale cavums. The atrioventricular valve, pulmonary trunk, and aortic arches were formed on the 18th day. Additionally, the atria were transversely separated by the first atrial septum. On the 39th day, the separation of the cavum venosum from the cavum pulmonale by the horizontal septum and the separation of the cavum venosum from the cavum arteriosum by the vertical septum were observed. In the post-hatched specimens, the myocardium remained spongy, with close proximity to erythrocytes, also forming evident partial septa and exhibiting the presence of nervous tissue, indicative of subepicardial plexus formation. It is concluded that by the 25th day, the fundamental events in the formation of the heart of P. expansa, such as the bending of the cardiac tube, the formation of the first atrial septum, atrioventricular valve formation, and partial ventricular septa, had already been completed. After hatching, the internal cardiac structures already resembled those observed in adults. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Congenital heart defects (CHDs) are the most common form of birth defects in humans. They occur in 9 out of 1000 live births and are defined as structural abnormalities of the heart. Understanding CHDs is difficult due to the heterogeneity of the disease and its multifactorial etiology. Advances in genomic sequencing have made it possible to identify the genetic factors involved in CHDs. However, genetic origins have only been found in a minority of CHD cases, suggesting the contribution of non-inherited (environmental) risk factors to the etiology of CHDs. Maternal pregestational diabetes is associated with a three- to five-fold increased risk of congenital cardiopathies, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are incompletely understood. According to current hypotheses, hyperglycemia is the main teratogenic agent in diabetic pregnancies. It is thought to induce cell damage, directly through genetic and epigenetic dysregulations and/or indirectly through production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The purpose of this review is to summarize key findings on the molecular mechanisms altered in cardiac development during exposure to hyperglycemic conditions in utero. It also presents the various in vivo and in vitro techniques used to experimentally model pregestational diabetes. Finally, new approaches are suggested to broaden our understanding of the subject and develop new prevention strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During zebrafish heart formation, cardiac progenitor cells converge at the embryonic midline where they form the cardiac cone. Subsequently, this structure transforms into a heart tube. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms that control these morphogenetic processes. Here, we use light-sheet microscopy and combine genetic, molecular biological and pharmacological tools to show that the paralogous genes wnt9a/b are required for the assembly of the nascent heart tube. In wnt9a/b double mutants, cardiomyocyte progenitor cells are delayed in their convergence towards the embryonic midline, the formation of the heart cone is impaired and the transformation into an elongated heart tube fails. The same cardiac phenotype occurs when both canonical and noncanonical Wnt signaling pathways are simultaneously blocked by pharmacological inhibition. This demonstrates that Wnt9a/b and canonical and non-canonical Wnt signaling regulate the migration of cardiomyocyte progenitor cells and control the formation of the cardiac tube. This can be partly attributed to their regulation of the timing of cardiac progenitor cell differentiation. Our study demonstrates how these morphogens activate a combination of downstream pathways to direct cardiac morphogenesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Desmosomes play a vital role in providing structural integrity to tissues that experience significant mechanical tension, including the heart. Deficiencies in desmosomal proteins lead to the development of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (AC). The limited availability of preventative measures in clinical settings underscores the pressing need to gain a comprehensive understanding of desmosomal proteins not only in cardiomyocytes but also in non-myocyte residents of the heart, as they actively contribute to the progression of cardiomyopathy. This review focuses specifically on the impact of desmosome deficiency on epi- and endocardial cells. We highlight the intricate cross-talk between desmosomal proteins mutations and signaling pathways involved in the regulation of epicardial cell fate transition. We further emphasize that the consequences of desmosome deficiency differ between the embryonic and adult heart leading to enhanced erythropoiesis during heart development and enhanced fibrogenesis in the mature heart. We suggest that triggering epi-/endocardial cells and fibroblasts that are in different "states" involve the same pathways but lead to different pathological outcomes. Understanding the details of the different responses must be considered when developing interventions and therapeutic strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Directed cardiomyogenesis from human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) has been greatly improved in the last decade but directed differentiation to pacemaking cardiomyocytes (CMs) remains incompletely understood. In this study, we demonstrated that inhibition of NODAL signaling by a specific NODAL inhibitor (SB431542) in the cardiac mesoderm differentiation stage downregulated PITX2c, a transcription factor that is known to inhibit the formation of the sinoatrial node in the left atrium during cardiac development. The resulting hiPSC-CMs were smaller in cell size, expressed higher pro-pacemaking transcription factors, TBX3 and TBX18, and exhibited pacemaking-like electrophysiological characteristics compared to control hiPSC-CMs differentiated from established Wnt-based protocol. The pacemaker-like subtype increased up to 2.4-fold in hiPSC-CMs differentiated with the addition of SB431542 relative to the control. Hence, Nodal inhibition in the cardiac mesoderm stage promoted pacemaker-like CM differentiation from hiPSCs. Improving the yield of human pacemaker-like CMs is a critical first step in the development of functional human cell-based biopacemakers.

Current transcriptomics technologies, including bulk RNA-seq, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), single-nucleus RNA-sequencing (snRNA-seq), and spatial transcriptomics (ST), provide novel insights into the spatial and temporal dynamics of gene expression during cardiac development and disease processes. Cardiac development is a highly sophisticated process involving the regulation of numerous key genes and signaling pathways at specific anatomical sites and developmental stages. Exploring the cell biological mechanisms involved in cardiogenesis also contributes to congenital heart disease research. Meanwhile, the severity of distinct heart diseases, such as coronary heart disease, valvular disease, cardiomyopathy, and heart failure, is associated with cellular transcriptional heterogeneity and phenotypic alteration. Integrating transcriptomic technologies in the clinical diagnosis and treatment of heart diseases will aid in advancing precision medicine. In this review, we summarize applications of scRNA-seq and ST in the cardiac field, including organogenesis and clinical diseases, and provide insights into the promise of single-cell and spatial transcriptomics in translational research and precision medicine.

Cardiac organoids are in vitro self-organizing and three-dimensional structures composed of multiple cardiac cells (i.e., cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, cardiac fibroblasts, etc.) with or without biological scaffolds. Since cardiac organoids recapitulate structural and functional characteristics of the native heart to a higher degree compared to the conventional two-dimensional culture systems, their applications, in combination with pluripotent stem cell technologies, are being widely expanded for the investigation of cardiogenesis, cardiac disease modeling, drug screening and development, and regenerative medicine. In this mini-review, recent advances in cardiac organoid technologies are summarized in chronological order, with a focus on the methodological points for each organoid formation. Further, the current limitations and the future perspectives in these promising systems are also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During mammalian embryogenesis, de novo hematopoiesis occurs transiently in multiple anatomical sites including the yolk sac, dorsal aorta, and heart tube. A long-unanswered question is whether these local transient hematopoietic mechanisms are essential for embryonic growth. Here, we show that endocardial hematopoiesis is critical for cardiac valve remodeling as a source of tissue macrophages. Colony formation assay from explanted heart tubes and genetic lineage tracing with the endocardial specific Nfatc1-Cre mouse revealed that hemogenic endocardium is a de novo source of tissue macrophages in the endocardial cushion, the primordium of the cardiac valves. Surface marker characterization, gene expression profiling, and ex vivo phagocytosis assay revealed that the endocardially derived cardiac tissue macrophages play a phagocytic and antigen presenting role. Indeed, genetic ablation of endocardially derived macrophages caused severe valve malformation. Together, these data suggest that transient hemogenic activity in the endocardium is indispensable for the valvular tissue remodeling in the heart.

The transcription factor HAND2 plays essential roles during cardiogenesis. Hand2 endocardial deletion (H2CKO) results in tricuspid atresia or double inlet left ventricle with accompanying intraventricular septumdefects, hypo-trabeculated ventricles and an increased density of coronary lumens. To understand the regulatory mechanisms of these phenotypes, single cell transcriptome analysis of mouse E11.5 H2CKO hearts was performed revealing a number of disrupted endocardial regulatory pathways. Using HAND2 DNA occupancy data, we identify several HAND2-dependent enhancers, including two endothelial enhancers for the shear-stress master regulator KLF2. A 1.8 kb enhancer located 50 kb upstream of the Klf2 TSS imparts specific endothelial/endocardial expression within the vasculature and endocardium. This enhancer is HAND2-dependent for ventricular endocardium expression but HAND2-independent for Klf2 vascular and valve expression. Deletion of this Klf2 enhancer results in reduced Klf2 expression within ventricular endocardium. These data reveal that HAND2 functions within endocardial gene regulatory networks including shear-stress response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite the extensive information available on the different genetic, epigenetic, and molecular features of cardiogenesis, the origin of congenital heart defects remains unknown. Most genetic and molecular studies have been conducted outside the context of the progressive anatomical and histological changes in the embryonic heart, which is one of the reasons for the limited knowledge of the origins of congenital heart diseases. We integrated the findings of descriptive studies on human embryos and experimental studies on chick, rat, and mouse embryos. This research is based on the new dynamic concept of heart development and the existence of two heart fields. The first field corresponds to the straight heart tube, into which splanchnic mesodermal cells from the second heart field are gradually recruited. The overall aim was to create a new vision for the analysis, diagnosis, and regionalized classification of congenital defects of the heart and great arteries. In addition to highlighting the importance of genetic factors in the development of congenital heart disease, this study provides new insights into the composition of the straight heart tube, the processes of twisting and folding, and the fate of the conus in the development of the right ventricle and its outflow tract. The new vision, based on in vivo labeling and cell tracking and enhanced by models such as gastruloids and organoids, has contributed to a better understanding of important errors in cardiac morphogenesis, which may lead to several congenital heart diseases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract The molecular mechanisms that regulate embryogenesis and cardiac development are calibrated by multiple signal transduction pathways within or between different cell lineages via autocrine or paracrine mechanisms of action. The heart is the first functional organ to form during development, which highlights the importance of this organ in later stages of growth. Knowledge of the regulatory mechanisms underlying cardiac development and adult cardiac homeostasis paves the way for discovering therapeutic possibilities for cardiac disease treatment. Serum response factor (SRF) is a major transcription factor that controls both embryonic and adult cardiac development. SRF expression is needed through the duration of development, from the first mesodermal cell in a developing embryo to the last cell damaged by infarction in the myocardium. Precise regulation of SRF expression is critical for mesoderm formation and cardiac crescent formation in the embryo, and altered SRF levels lead to cardiomyopathies in the adult heart, suggesting the vital role played by SRF in cardiac development and disease. This review provides a detailed overview of SRF and its partners in their various functions and discusses the future scope and possible therapeutic potential of SRF in the cardiovascular system.

Oxytocin (OXT) is a neurohypophysial nonapeptide that exerts its effects mainly through the oxytocin receptor (OXTR). Several studies have pointed out the role of OXT in the modulation of stem cell (SC) fate and properties. SCs are undifferentiated cells characterized by a remarkable ability to self-renew and differentiate into various cell types of the body. In this review, we focused on the role of OXT in SC differentiation. Specifically, we summarize and discuss the scientific research examining the effects of OXT on mesodermal SC-derived lineages, including cardiac, myogenic, adipogenic, osteogenic, and chondrogenic differentiation. The available studies related to the effects of OXT on SC differentiation provide little insights about the molecular mechanism mediated by the OXT-OXTR pathway. Further research is needed to fully elucidate these pathways to effectively modulate SC differentiation and develop potential therapeutic applications in regenerative medicine.

Development of the heart is a very intricate and multiplex process as it involves not only the three spatial dimensions but also the fourth or time dimension. Over time, the heart of an embryo needs to adapt its function to serve the increasing complexity of differentiation and growth towards adulthood. It becomes even more perplexing by expanding time into millions of years, allocating related species in the tree of life. As the evolution of soft tissues can hardly be studied, we have to rely on comparative embryology, supported heavily by genetic and molecular approaches. These techniques provide insight into relationships, not only between species, but also between cell populations, signaling mechanisms, molecular interactions and physical factors such as hemodynamics. Heart development depends on differentiation of a mesodermal cell population that - in more derived taxa - continues in segmentation of the first and second heart field. These fields deliver not only the cardiomyocytes, forming the three-dimensionally looping cardiac tube as a basis for the chambered heart, but also the enveloping epicardium. The synchronized beating of the heart is then organized by the conduction system. In this Review, the epicardium is introduced as an important player in cardiac differentiation, including the conduction system., Competing Interests: Competing interests The author declares no competing or financial interests., (© 2024. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd.)

Desmosomes play a vital role in providing structural integrity to tissues that experience significant mechanical tension, including the heart. Deficiencies in desmosomal proteins lead to the development of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (AC). The limited availability of preventative measures in clinical settings underscores the pressing need to gain a comprehensive understanding of desmosomal proteins not only in cardiomyocytes but also in non-myocyte residents of the heart, as they actively contribute to the progression of cardiomyopathy. This review focuses specifically on the impact of desmosome deficiency on epi- and endocardial cells. We highlight the intricate cross-talk between desmosomal proteins mutations and signaling pathways involved in the regulation of epicardial cell fate transition. We further emphasize that the consequences of desmosome deficiency differ between the embryonic and adult heart leading to enhanced erythropoiesis during heart development and enhanced fibrogenesis in the mature heart. We suggest that triggering epi-/endocardial cells and fibroblasts that are in different “states” involve the same pathways but lead to different pathological outcomes. Understanding the details of the different responses must be considered when developing interventions and therapeutic strategies.

Tbx20 is a T-box transcription factor that plays essential roles in the development and maintenance of the heart. Although it is expressed by cardiac progenitors in all species examined, an involvement of Tbx20 in cardiac progenitor formation in vertebrates has not been previously described. Here we report the identification of a zebrafish tbx20 mutation that results in an inactive, truncated protein lacking any functional domains. The cardiac progenitor population is strongly diminished in this mutant, leading to the formation of a small, stretched-out heart. We found that overexpression of Tbx20 results in an enlarged heart with significantly more cardiomyocytes. Interestingly, this increase in cell number is caused by both enhanced cardiac progenitor cell formation and the proliferation of differentiated cardiomyocytes, and is dependent upon the activity of Tbx20's T-box and transcription activation domains. Together, our findings highlight a previously unappreciated role for Tbx20 in promoting cardiac progenitor formation in vertebrates and reveal a novel function for its activation domain in cardiac cell proliferation during embryogenesis.

In the last two decades lab-on-chip models, specifically heart-on-chip, have been developed as promising technologies for recapitulating physiological environments suitable for studies of drug and environmental effects on either human physiological or patho-physiological conditions. Most human heart-on-chip systems are based on integration and adaptation of terminally differentiated cells within microfluidic context. This process requires prolonged procedures, multiple steps, and is associated with an intrinsic variability of cardiac differentiation. In this view, we developed a method for cardiac differentiation-on-a-chip based on combining the stage-specific regulation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling with the forced expression of transcription factors (TFs) that timely recapitulate hallmarks of the cardiac development. We performed the overall cardiac differentiation from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) to cardiomyocytes (CMs) within a microfluidic environment. Sequential forced expression of cardiac TFs was achieved by a sequential mmRNAs delivery of first MESP1, GATA4 followed by GATA4, NKX2.5, MEF2C, TBX3, and TBX5. We showed that this optimized protocol led to a robust and reproducible approach to obtain a cost-effective hiPSC-derived heart-on-chip. The results showed higher distribution of cTNT positive CMs along the channel and a higher expression of functional cardiac markers (TNNT2 and MYH7). The combination of stage-specific regulation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling with mmRNAs encoding cardiac transcription factors will be suitable to obtain heart-on-chip model in a cost-effective manner, enabling to perform combinatorial, multiparametric, parallelized and high-throughput experiments on functional cardiomyocytes.

Plant growth regulators (PGRs) are increasingly used to promote sustainable agriculture, but their unregulated use raises concerns about potential environmental risks. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), a commonly used PGR, has been the subject of research on its developmental toxicity in the in-vivo zebrafish model. IAA exposure to zebrafish embryos caused oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and cellular apoptosis. The study also revealed that critical antioxidant genes including sod , cat , and bcl2 were downregulated, while pro-apoptotic genes such as bax and p53 were upregulated. IAA exposure also hampered normal cardiogenesis by downregulating myl7 , amhc , and vmhc genes and potentially influencing zebrafish neurobehavior. The accumulation of IAA was confirmed by HPLC analysis of IAA-exposed zebrafish tissues. These findings underscore the need for further study on the potential ecological consequences of IAA use and the need for sustainable agricultural practices. [Display omitted] • Indole-3 acetic acid (IAA) induced embryotoxic and teratogenic effect in embryo. • IAA led to an increase in oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation and cellular apoptosis. • Down regulation in antioxidant and up regulation in pro-apoptotic genes due to IAA. • IAA exposure hindered cardiogenesis in developing embryos. • IAA is altering neurobehavior and tissue IAA accumulation in in-vivo larval model. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The molecular mechanisms that regulate embryogenesis and cardiac development are calibrated by multiple signal transduction pathways within or between different cell lineages via autocrine or paracrine mechanisms of action. The heart is the first functional organ to form during development, which highlights the importance of this organ in later stages of growth. Knowledge of the regulatory mechanisms underlying cardiac development and adult cardiac homeostasis paves the way for discovering therapeutic possibilities for cardiac disease treatment. Serum response factor (SRF) is a major transcription factor that controls both embryonic and adult cardiac development. SRF expression is needed through the duration of development, from the first mesodermal cell in a developing embryo to the last cell damaged by infarction in the myocardium. Precise regulation of SRF expression is critical for mesoderm formation and cardiac crescent formation in the embryo, and altered SRF levels lead to cardiomyopathies in the adult heart, suggesting the vital role played by SRF in cardiac development and disease. This review provides a detailed overview of SRF and its partners in their various functions and discusses the future scope and possible therapeutic potential of SRF in the cardiovascular system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BackgroundAcute myocardial infarction (MI) leads to an irreversible loss of proper cardiac function. Application of stem cell therapy is an attractive option for MI treatment. Adipose tissue has proven to serve as a rich source of stem cells (ADSCs). Taking into account the different morphogenesis, anatomy, and physiology of adipose tissue, we hypothesized that ADSCs from different adipose tissue depots may exert a diverse multipotency and cardiogenic potential.MethodsThe omental, pericardial, and epicardial adipose tissue samples were obtained from organ donors and patients undergoing heart transplantation at our institution. Human foreskin fibroblasts were used as the control group. Isolated ADSCs were analyzed for adipogenic and osteogenic differentiation capacity and proliferation potential. The immunophenotype and constitutive gene expression of alkaline phosphatase (ALP), GATA4, Nanog, and OCT4 were analyzed. DNA methylation inhibitor 5-azacytidine was exposed to the cells to stimulate the cardiogenesis. Finally, reprogramming towards cardiomyocytes was initiated with exogenous overexpression of seven transcription factors (ESRRG, GATA4, MEF2C, MESP1, MYOCD, TBX5, ZFPM2) previously applied successfully for fibroblast transdifferentiation toward cardiomyocytes. Expression of cardiac troponin T (cTNT) and alpha-actinin (Actn2) was analyzed 3 weeks after initiation of the cardiac differentiation.ResultsThe multipotent properties of isolated plastic adherent cells were confirmed with expression of CD29, CD44, CD90, and CD105, as well as successful differentiation toward adipocytes and osteocytes; with the highest osteogenic and adipogenic potential for the epicardial and omental ADSCs, respectively. Epicardial ADSCs demonstrated a lower doubling time as compared with the pericardium and omentum-derived cells. Furthermore, epicardial ADSCs revealed higher constitutive expression of ALP and GATA4. Increased Actn2 and cTNT expression was observed after the transduction of seven reprogramming factors, with the highest expression in the epicardial ADSCs, as compared with the other ADSC subtypes and fibroblasts.ConclusionsHuman epicardial ADSCs revealed a higher cardiomyogenic potential as compared with the pericardial and omental ADSC subtypes as well as the fibroblast counterparts. Epicardial ADSCs may thus serve as the valuable subject for further studies on more effective methods of adult stem cell differentiation toward cardiomyocytes.

Activation of complex molecular programs in specific cell lineages governs mammalian heart development, from a primordial linear tube to a four-chamber organ. To characterize lineage-specific, spatiotemporal developmental programs, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing of >1,200 murine cells isolated at seven time points spanning embryonic day 9.5 (primordial heart tube) to postnatal day 21 (mature heart). Using unbiased transcriptional data, we classified cardiomyocytes, endothelial cells, and fibroblast-enriched cells, thus identifying markers for temporal and chamber-specific developmental programs. By harnessing these datasets, we defined developmental ages of human and mouse pluripotent stem-cell-derived cardiomyocytes and characterized lineage-specific maturation defects in hearts of mice with heterozygous mutations in Nkx2.5 that cause human heart malformations. This spatiotemporal transcriptome analysis of heart development reveals lineage-specific gene programs underlying normal cardiac development and congenital heart disease.

The collagen- and calcium-binding EGF-like domains 1 (CCBE1) is a secreted protein extensively described as indispensable for lymphangiogenesis during development enhancing VEGF-C signaling. In human patients, mutations in CCBE1 have been found to cause Hennekam syndrome, an inherited disease characterized by malformation of the lymphatic system that presents a wide variety of symptoms such as primary lymphedema, lymphangiectasia, and heart defects. Importantly, over the last decade, an essential role for CCBE1 during heart development is being uncovered. In mice, Ccbe1 expression was initially detected in distinct cardiac progenitors such as first and second heart field, and the proepicardium. More recently, Ccbe1 expression was identified in the epicardium and sinus venosus (SV) myocardium at E11.5–E13.5, the stage when SV endocardium–derived (VEGF-C dependent) coronary vessels start to form. Concordantly, CCBE1 is required for the correct formation of the coronary vessels and the coronary artery stem in the mouse. Additionally, Ccbe1 was found to be enriched in mouse embryonic stem cells (ESC) and revealed as a new essential gene for the differentiation of ESC-derived early cardiac precursor cell lineages. Here, we bring an up-to-date review on the role of CCBE1 in cardiac development, function, and human disease implications. Finally, we envisage the potential of this molecule's functions from a regenerative medicine perspective, particularly novel therapeutic strategies for heart disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As a tightly controlled biological process, cardiogenesis requires the specification and migration of a suite of cell types to form a particular three-dimensional configuration of the heart. Many genetic factors are involved in the formation and maturation of the heart, and any genetic mutations may result in severe cardiac failures. The neuron navigator (NAV) family consists of three vertebrate homologs (NAV1, NAV2, and NAV3) of the neural guidance molecule uncoordinated-53 (UNC-53) in Caenorhabditis elegans. Although they are recognized as neural regulators, their expressions are also detected in many organs, including the heart, kidney, and liver. However, the functions of NAVs, regardless of neural guidance, remain largely unexplored. In our study, we found that nav3 gene was expressed in the cardiac region of zebrafish embryos from 24 to 48 h post-fertilization (hpf) by means of in situ hybridization (ISH) assay. A CRISPR/Cas9-based genome editing method was utilized to delete the nav3 gene in zebrafish and loss of function of Nav3 resulted in a severe deficiency in its cardiac morphology and structure. The similar phenotypic defects of the knockout mutants could recur by nav3 morpholino injection and be rescued by nav3 mRNA injection. Dual-color fluorescence imaging of ventricle and atrium markers further confirmed the disruption of the heart development in nav3-deleted mutants. Although the heart rate was not affected by the deletion of nav3, the heartbeat intensity was decreased in the mutants. All these findings indicate that Nav3 was required for cardiogenesis in developing zebrafish embryos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor-ξ1 (PTPRZ1) is a transmembrane tyrosine phosphatase receptor highly expressed in embryonic stem cells. In the present work, gene expression analyses of Ptprz1-/- and Ptprz1þ/þ mice endothelial cells and hearts pointed to an unidentified role of PTPRZ1 in heart development through the regulation of heart-specific transcription factor genes. Echocardiography analysis in mice identified that both systolic and diastolic functions are affected in Ptprz1-/-compared with Ptprz1þ/þ hearts, based on a dilated left ventricular (LV) cavity, decreased ejection fraction and fraction shortening, and increased angiogenesis in Ptprz1-/- hearts, with no signs of cardiac hypertrophy. A zebrafish ptprz1-/- knockout was also generated and exhibited misregulated expression of developmental cardiac markers, bradycardia, and defective heart morphogenesis characterized by enlarged ventricles and defected contractility. A selective PTPRZ1 tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor affected zebrafish heart development and function in a way like what is observed in the ptprz1-/- zebrafish. The same inhibitor had no effect in the function of the adult zebrafish heart, suggesting that PTPRZ1 is not important for the adult heart function, in line with data from the human cell atlas showing very low to negligible PTPRZ1 expression in the adult human heart. However, in line with the animal models, Ptprz1 was expressed in many different cell types in the human fetal heart, such as valvar, fibroblast-like, cardiomyocytes, and endothelial cells. Collectively, these data suggest that PTPRZ1 regulates cardiac morphogenesis in a way that subsequently affects heart function and warrant further studies for the involvement of PTPRZ1 in idiopathic congenital cardiac pathologies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the results of an experimental effect of cadmium chloride / cadmium citrate on the cardiogenesis in conditions of intragastric administration to pregnant female rats. The aspect of accumulation of cadmium salts in the heart of the embryo was studied under the condition of daily administration of a salt solution to female rats from the first day of pregnancy to the end of embryogenesis (20 days). In addition to the groups of isolated cadmium administration, there were groups of combined administration of cadmium salts with citrates of germanium, cerium, and the iodine + sulfur composite. The second task was to study the effect of the studied salt solutions on the cardiogenesis of rat’s embryos, for which serial histological sections of the heart were made. The thickness of the compact myocardium of the heart chambers was measured as the main indicator of cardiogenesis. The use of multielement analysis showed that the highest level of cadmium accumulation was found in the group of isolated cadmium citrate administration against the background of a decrease in the zinc content in the heart tissues of the embryo. It has been proven that cadmium citrate maintains a high level of accumulation in the groups with combined administration of cerium citrate, germanium citrate, iodine + sulfur citrate composites, but in these groups the level of zinc in the myocardium significantly increases, which can be regarded as an element of the compensatory effect of cerium citrate, germanium and composite iodine + sulfur.The effect of the indicated doses of cadmium salts on cardiogenesis in rats was reflected in the thickness of the myocardial layer of all chambers of the heart in different ways: cadmium chloride thickened the walls of the left and right ventricles, both atria with a thickening of the interventricular septum. Cadmium citrate provokes thinning of the myocardium of the wall of both ventricles and local thickening of the interventricular septum. In the groups of combined administration, the indicators of the thickness of the compact myocardium restored, which indicates the modifying effect of citrates of the studied trace elements on the cardiotoxicity of cadmium salts.

Abstract Background Early human heart and brain development simultaneously occur during embryogenesis. Notably, in human newborns, congenital heart defects strongly associate with neurodevelopmental abnormalities, suggesting a common gene or complex underlying both cardiogenesis and neurogenesis. However, due to lack of in vivo studies, the molecular mechanisms that govern both early human heart and brain development remain elusive. Results Here, we report ARID1A, a DNA-binding subunit of the SWI/SNF epigenetic complex, controls both neurogenesis and cardiogenesis from human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) through distinct mechanisms. Knockout-of-ARID1A (ARID1A−/−) leads to spontaneous differentiation of neural cells together with globally enhanced expression of neurogenic genes in undifferentiated hESCs. Additionally, when compared with WT hESCs, cardiac differentiation from ARID1A −/− hESCs is prominently suppressed, whereas neural differentiation is significantly promoted. Whole genome-wide scRNA-seq, ATAC-seq, and ChIP-seq analyses reveal that ARID1A is required to open chromatin accessibility on promoters of essential cardiogenic genes, and temporally associated with key cardiogenic transcriptional factors T and MEF2C during early cardiac development. However, during early neural development, transcription of most essential neurogenic genes is dependent on ARID1A, which can interact with a known neural restrictive silencer factor REST/NRSF. Conclusions We uncover the opposite roles by ARID1A to govern both early cardiac and neural development from pluripotent stem cells. Global chromatin accessibility on cardiogenic genes is dependent on ARID1A, whereas transcriptional activity of neurogenic genes is under control by ARID1A, possibly through ARID1A-REST/NRSF interaction.

Abstract Mesoangioblasts (MABs) derived from adult skeletal muscles are well‐studied adult stem/progenitor cells that already entered clinical trials for muscle regeneration in genetic diseases; however, the transcriptional identity of human fetal MABs (fMABs) remains largely unknown. Herein we analyzed the transcriptome of MABs isolated according to canonical markers from fetal atrium, ventricle, aorta, and skeletal muscles (from 9.5 to 13 weeks of age) to uncover specific gene signatures correlating with their peculiar myogenic differentiation properties inherent to their tissue of origin. RNA‐seq analysis revealed for the first time that human MABs from fetal aorta, cardiac (atrial and ventricular), and skeletal muscles display subsets of differentially expressed genes likely representing distinct expression signatures indicative of their original tissue. Identified GO biological processes and KEGG pathways likely account for their distinct differentiation outcomes and provide a set of critical genes possibly predicting future specific differentiation outcomes. This study reveals novel information regarding the potential of human fMABs that may help to improve specific differentiation outcomes relevant for therapeutic muscle regeneration.

After 15 days of postnatal development of rats, in cardiomyocytes (CMC) of the left ventricle there is a longitudinal splitting of myofibrils, which leads to an increase in their number in the contractile apparatus (CA). In newborn (n/b) rats, the number of myofibrils (MF) in the contractile apparatus of the cardiomyocytic (CMC) does not exceed 12-13 pieces. In the CMC of 45-day-old animals, this figure is 80 pieces. If we take the thrust of one CMC of newborn rats, for one conventional unit Fcmc (n/b) = 1conditional unit (c.u.). The thrust of one CMC of 45-dayold rats will be equal to Fcmc = (80 MF: 12 MF) ≈ 6.5 c.u. conditional unit. Thus, the total thrust of all CMC (Ncmc = 0.72 x 107 ) in the myocardium of newborn rats theoretically is ∑Fcmc = 0.72 x 107 c.u. The traction force of all CMC (Ncmc = 1.56 x 107 ) in the myocardium of 45 day-old rats will be: ∑Fcmc = 1.56 x 107 х 6.5 c.u ≈ 108 c.u In the time interval (n/b) – 45 days, there is a fluctuation of digital values of the cross-sectional area of the MF in the narrow range SØmf ϵ[0.65-1.05] μm2 . “Increase ↔ decrease” of the volume of sarcomeres in the MF occurs as result of fluctuations in the composition of each sarcomere of the number of structural elements – hundreds. In the center of the honeycomb is one thick, and around the perimeter of 12 thin filaments. Six thin filaments area ttached to the Z-disk on one side of the thick filament, the other six to the Z-disk on the other side of the thick filament. The area of one cell is 6,225 х 10-4 μm2 . During the period of postnatal maturation of the CMC (45 days), the number of cells in the sarcomere ranges from 1044 to 1690. Thus, in the time interval (n/r – 45) days of postnatal maturation of the CMC, the increase in the absolute volume of the contractile apparatus of the CMC occurs under the influence of the following intracellular mechanisms. 1. Increasing the length of myofibrils in 3.2 times from 25 μm to 81 μm. 2. Increasing the number of MF in the contractile apparatus of cardiomyocytes in ≈ 6.5 times from 12-13 pieces to 80 pieces. 3. Fluctuations in the cross-sectional area of myofibrils in the range [0,65-1,05] μm2 . 4. Neoplasms of honeycombs – structural and functional units in the sarcomere from 1044 to 1690 pieces. As a result of increasing the number of CMC in ≈ 2.17 times and the number of myofibrils in each CMC in ≈ 6.7 times there is an increase in the contractile force of myocardial traction in 14 times.

The collagen- and calcium-binding EGF-like domains 1 (CCBE1) is a secreted protein extensively described as indispensable for lymphangiogenesis during development enhancing VEGF-C signaling. In human patients, mutations in CCBE1 have been found to cause Hennekam syndrome, an inherited disease characterized by malformation of the lymphatic system that presents a wide variety of symptoms such as primary lymphedema, lymphangiectasia, and heart defects. Importantly, over the last decade, an essential role for CCBE1 during heart development is being uncovered. In mice, Ccbe1 expression was initially detected in distinct cardiac progenitors such as first and second heart field, and the proepicardium. More recently, Ccbe1 expression was identified in the epicardium and sinus venosus (SV) myocardium at E11.5–E13.5, the stage when SV endocardium–derived (VEGF-C dependent) coronary vessels start to form. Concordantly, CCBE1 is required for the correct formation of the coronary vessels and the coronary artery stem in the mouse. Additionally, Ccbe1 was found to be enriched in mouse embryonic stem cells (ESC) and revealed as a new essential gene for the differentiation of ESC-derived early cardiac precursor cell lineages. Here, we bring an up-to-date review on the role of CCBE1 in cardiac development, function, and human disease implications. Finally, we envisage the potential of this molecule’s functions from a regenerative medicine perspective, particularly novel therapeutic strategies for heart disease.

Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) constitute a valuable model to study the complexity of early human cardiac development and investigate the molecular mechanisms involved in heart diseases. The differentiation of hPSCs into cardiac lineages in vitro can be achieved by traditional two-dimensional (2D) monolayer approaches or by adopting innovative three-dimensional (3D) cardiac organoid protocols. Human cardiac organoids (hCOs) are complex multicellular aggregates that faithfully recapitulate the cardiac tissue’s transcriptional, functional, and morphological features. In recent years, significant advances in the field have dramatically improved the robustness and efficiency of hCOs derivation and have promoted the application of hCOs for drug screening and heart disease modeling. This review surveys the current differentiation protocols, focusing on the most advanced 3D methods for deriving hCOs from hPSCs. Furthermore, we describe the potential applications of hCOs in the pharmaceutical and tissue bioengineering fields, including their usage to investigate the consequences of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome CoronaVirus 2 (SARS-CoV2) infection in the heart.

Despite the extensive information available on the different genetic, epigenetic, and molecular features of cardiogenesis, the origin of congenital heart defects remains unknown. Most genetic and molecular studies have been conducted outside the context of the progressive anatomical and histological changes in the embryonic heart, which is one of the reasons for the limited knowledge of the origins of congenital heart diseases. We integrated the findings of descriptive studies on human embryos and experimental studies on chick, rat, and mouse embryos. This research is based on the new dynamic concept of heart development and the existence of two heart fields. The first field corresponds to the straight heart tube, into which splanchnic mesodermal cells from the second heart field are gradually recruited. The overall aim was to create a new vision for the analysis, diagnosis, and regionalized classification of congenital defects of the heart and great arteries. In addition to highlighting the importance of genetic factors in the development of congenital heart disease, this study provides new insights into the composition of the straight heart tube, the processes of twisting and folding, and the fate of the conus in the development of the right ventricle and its outflow tract. The new vision, based on in vivo labeling and cell tracking and enhanced by models such as gastruloids and organoids, has contributed to a better understanding of important errors in cardiac morphogenesis, which may lead to several congenital heart diseases.

Abstract Background Expression patterns between males and females vary in every adult tissue, even in organs with no conspicuous dimorphisms such as the heart. While studies of male and female differences have traditionally focused on the influence of sex hormones, these do not account for all the differences at the molecular and epigenetic levels. We previously reported that a substantial number of genes were differentially expressed in male and female mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells and revealed dose-dependent enhancer activity in response to Prdm14, a key pluripotency factor expressed more highly in female ES cells. In this work, we investigated the role of Prdm14 in establishing sex-specific gene expression networks. We surveyed the sex-specific landscape in early embryogenesis with special reference to cardiac development. We generated sex-specific co-expression networks from mouse ES cells, examined the presence of sex-specific chromatin domains, and analyzed previously published datasets from different developmental time points to characterize how sex-biased gene expression waxes and wanes to evaluate whether sex-biased networks are detectable throughout heart development. Results We performed ChIP-seq on male and female mouse ES cells to determine differences in chromatin status. Our study reveals sex-biased histone modifications, underscoring the potential for the sex chromosome complement to prime the genome differently in early development with consequences for later expression biases. Upon differentiation of ES cells to cardiac precursors, we found sex-biased expression of key transcription and epigenetic factors, some of which persisted from the undifferentiated state. Using network analyses, we also found that Prdm14 plays a prominent role in regulating a subset of dimorphic expression patterns. To determine whether sex-biased expression is present throughout cardiogenesis, we re-analyzed data from two published studies that sampled the transcriptomes of mouse hearts from 8.5 days post-coitum embryos to neonates and adults. We found sex-biased expression at every stage in heart development, and interestingly, identified a subset of genes that exhibit the same bias across multiple cardiogenic stages. Conclusions Overall, our results support the existence of sexually dimorphic gene expression profiles and regulatory networks at every stage of cardiac development, some of which may be established in early embryogenesis and epigenetically perpetuated.

Pressing problem for the industrial regions of Ukraine are heavy metal pollution, with priority toxicants which is lead and its compounds. Search for new bioantogonism possible lead compounds a task relevant (important) to modern medicine. Objective. The aim of the study was to determine the experimental morphogenetic effects of patterns of isolated impact of lead acetate and lead acetate combined action of silver citrate to heart development of the embryos of rats. Methods. The study conducted on embryos of white rats. In the experiment, there were 3 groups of animals: control group isolated administration of lead acetate group and the combined administration of lead acetate and silver citrate. Results. Experimental results showed cardiotoxicity of lead acetate, which was determined to reduce the thickness of the compact myocardium wall ventricle of the heart, reducing thickness fibrillation, ventricular septal thinning. Violation of delamination processes and ventricular myocardium compaction under the influence isolated lead acetate manifest violation of the trabecular layer formation and the formation of ventricular myocardium atrioventricular valve holes: shortening valves, change the content and scope of the atrioventricular valves accompanied by the formation of additional anomalous tendon strings. The influence on the course of cardiogenesis in groups with combined effects of lead acetate and silver citrate showed recovery of myocardial thickness and ventricular fibrillation, no violations in the formation of valvular heart rat embryos, indicating a decrease in cardiac toxicity of lead acetate citrate metals during combined administration. Conclusion. Introduction solutions silver citrate prevents the negative effect of lead acetate on the general course of processes of cardiogenesis of embryos of rats under experimental conditions and indicates their bioantagonism.

Mortality and morbidity during the prenatal period of development remain a real problem at the present time. The Scientific Committee EURO-PERISTAT has revealed that mortality of fetuses associated with congenital abnormalities is on average 15–20% across Europe. Hypoxia is one of the top causes of death of fetuses. Since the heart begins to function before birth, influence of teratogenic factors leads to formation of anomalies of its development. Congenital heart defects are the most common of these and occur with a frequency of 24%. Abnormalities associated with the atrium occur with frequency of 6.4 per 10,000 cases. Investigation of structural changes of the atrial myocardium is a key for understanding of pathogenic mechanisms of cardiovascular diseases that are caused by influence of hypoxia. Nowadays, a great deal of research is being dedicated to normal cardiogenesis and much less work is focused on abnormal heart development. There are numerous teratogenic factors such as alcohol, retinoic acid, hyperthermia, hypoxia that are most common causes of heart diseases. The attention of researchers has been predominantly focused on study of changes of the ventricular myocardium under the effect of hypoxia. It is known that the atrium is different from the ventricles by derivation, development and structure. Therefore, the effects of pathological factors on the atrial myocardium will be different as complared to their effect on the ventricles. Also, almost all research has focused on study of consequences of hypoxia at the late stages of cardiogenesis. However, the greatest number of abnormalities is associated with the early embryonic period, as structures that continue development are more sensitive to the effects of harmful factors. Thus, comparative analysis of scientific research devoted to morphological study of atrial myocardium transformations on the cellular and ultrastructural levels under the influence of hypoxia during the stages of cardiogenesis is an important task.

Exposure to chlorpyrifos‐cypermethrin combination during early development resulted in defective looping and ventricular noncompaction of heart in domestic chicken. The study was extended to elucidate the molecular basis of this novel observation. The primary culture of chicken embryonic heart cells showed a concentration‐dependent loss of viability when challenged with this combination of technical‐grade insecticides. Comet assay, DNA ladder assay, and analyses of appropriate markers at transcript and protein levels, revealed that chlorpyrifos‐cypermethrin combination induced cell death by activating apoptosis. Parallelly, the tissues derived from control and experimental group hearts were checked for apoptotic markers, and the result was much similar to that of the in‐vitro study. Further analysis showed that chlorpyrifos‐cypermethrin combination deranged the expression pattern of the transcriptional regulators of cardiogenesis, namely TBX20, GATA5, HAND2, and MYOCD. This, together with heightened apoptosis, could well be the reason behind the observed structural anomalies in the heart of chlorpyrifos‐cypermethrin poisoned embryos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]