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Galectin-3 is a β-galactoside-binding lectin which is important in cell proliferation and apoptotic regulation. Recently, serum galectin-3 has been shown to have prognostic value as a biomarker in heart failure. Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) can cause severe myocarditis, congestive heart failure and dilated cardiomyopathy as well as encephalitis in various animals including mice. The pathophysiological role of galectin-3 in acute myocarditis following viral infection is not fully understood. The goal of this study is to determine the cardiac localization and the time-course of galectin-3 expression in heart failure after viral inoculation with EMCV. At 12, 24, 48, 96 hours, 7 and 10 days after intraperitoneal EMCV inoculation, animals were examined histologically and analyzed for the expression of galectin-3 and Iba1. Galectin-3 was up-regulated in degenerated fibrotic lesions of cardiac tissues 96 hours after viral inoculation and were followed by myocardial fibrosis. At the same time, Iba1 positive macrophages were observed within the inflammatory sites. A time-course correlation between the number of galectin-3 positive cells and the cardiac area of degenerated fibrotic lesions was detected-serum galectin-3 increased at 96 hours and correlated well with the number of cardiac galectin-3 positive cells. Our results indicate that galectin-3 expression may be a useful biomarker of cardiac fibrotic degeneration in acute myocarditis following viral infection. In addition, measuring serum galectin-3 levels might be an early diagnostic method for detecting cardiac degeneration in acute myocarditis., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) is a zoonotic pathogen that has a wide spectrum of host range. The virus has been discovered on swine farms worldwide and can cause acute fatal myocarditis in piglets and reproductive disorders in sows. Although EMCV infection has been documented in farmed pigs in China, seroprevalence in humans has not been reported. In this study, we conducted nationwide serological surveys for EMCV in humans and farmed pigs in China in 2013, by the use of a double antigen sandwich ELISA method. A total of 3305 serum samples from healthy people were obtained from seven geographical regions in China, of which 1010 samples (30.56%) were positive for EMCV antibodies. The overall seroprevalence for EMCV in the age groups of 0-20, 21-40, 41-60 and >60 years were 13.5%, 30.25%, 36.83% and 38.71% respectively, showing a tendency of increasing with age (P = 0.000). A total of 3470 serum samples from farmed pigs were collected and tested for antibodies to EMCV. A high seroprevalence of 77% was recorded, and significant regional differences were observed. It was concluded that people and pigs in China were commonly infected by EMCV. In addition, in order to characterize changes of seroprevalence during natural EMCV infection in pigs, 240 serial serum samples were collected from 30 pigs (at 0, 15, 30, 60, 75, 90, 120, and 150 days of age) in a farrow-to-finish farm in China. The data showed that there were two EMCV antibody peaks: the first peak appeared at day 30, followed by a decrease in EMCV antibody titer, and the second occurred after day 75. Thus, the most susceptible period of pigs for EMCV infection was between day 30 and day 75 of age.

The aim of this study was to describe the frequency and distribution of Saffold virus in longitudinal stool samples from children, and test for association with development of persistent autoantibodies predictive of type 1 diabetes. A cohort of Norwegian children carrying the HLA genotype associated with highest risk of type 1 diabetes ("DR4-DQ8/DR3-DQ2") was followed with monthly stool samples from 3 to 35 months of age. Blood samples were tested for autoantibodies to insulin, glutamic acid decarboxylase65 and Islet Antigen-2. 2077 stool samples from 27 children with ≥ 2 repeatedly positive islet autoantibodies (cases), and 53 matched controls were analysed for Saffold virus genomic RNA by semi-quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR. Saffold virus was found in 53 of 2077 (2.6%) samples, with similar proportions between cases (2.5%) and controls (2.6%). The probability of being infected by 3 years of age was 28% (95% CI 0.18-0.40). Viral quantities ranged from <1 to almost 105 copies/μl. Estimated odds ratio between islet autoimmunity and infection episodes prior to seroconversion was 1.98 (95% CI: 0.57-6.91, p = 0.29). Saffold virus had no statistically significant association with islet autoimmunity.

Background: Viral agents associated with reproductive failure such as Aujeszky's disease virus (ADV), encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV), and porcine parvovirus (PPV) have also been identified in European wild boar. To screen for the presence of antibodies against ADV, EMCV, and PPV from wild boar (Sus scrofa) in South Korea, 481 serum samples were collected from wild boar hunted between December 2010 and May 2011., Results: Of the 481 serum samples tested, 47 (9.8%) and 37 (7.7%) were seropositive for ADV and EMCV antibodies, respectively, based on a neutralization test (VNT), and 142 (29.5%) were seropositive for PPV antibodies based on a hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test., Conclusions: This was the first survey to identify the seroprevalence of the three major viruses associated with reproductive failure in the wild boar population of South Korea. Wild boar may act as a reservoir for many viruses that cause infectious diseases in domestic pigs. Thus, strict prevention and control measures, such as continuous wildlife disease surveillance and strategic methods of downsizing the population density, should be implemented to prevent disease transmission from wild boar to domestic pigs.

Viral infections have been associated with reduced platelet counts, the biological significance of which has remained elusive. Here, we show that infection with encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) rapidly reduces platelet count, and this response is attributed to platelet Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7). Platelet-TLR7 stimulation mediates formation of large platelet-neutrophil aggregates, both in mouse and human blood. Intriguingly, this process results in internalization of platelet CD41-fragments by neutrophils, as assessed biochemically and visualized by microscopy, with no influence on platelet prothrombotic properties. The mechanism includes TLR7-mediated platelet granule release, translocation of P-selectin to the cell surface, and a consequent increase in platelet-neutrophil adhesion. Viral infection of platelet-depleted mice also led to increased mortality. Transfusion of wild-type, TLR7-expressing platelets into TLR7-deficient mice caused a drop in platelet count and increased survival post EMCV infection. Thus, this study identifies a new link between platelets and their response to single-stranded RNA viruses that involves activation of TLR7. Finally, platelet-TLR7 stimulation is independent of thrombosis and has implications to the host immune response and survival., (© 2014 by The American Society of Hematology.)

Background: IFN-α5 has been demonstrated to induce stronger signaling and higher expression of antiviral genes than IFN-α2, which is the current treatment in chronic viral hepatitis. However, there is no specific and validated quantification method in order to conduct kinetic studies as part of the preclinical and clinical evaluation for regulatory purposes., Results: A novel integration of an antiviral assay against the cytopathic effect of the encephalomyocarditis virus in HeLa cells with a very sensitive method for assay processing - the Vialight(®) Plus assay - is presented for IFN-α5 activity quantification. The bioassay has been validated in macaque and human serum and it has been demonstrated to be selective, precise and accurate., Conclusion: The validated bioassay meets suitable acceptance criteria for these types of biological assays.

Background: Fatal myocarditis from encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) infection has previously been identified in sporadic and epidemic forms in many species of captive non-human primates probably including one bonobo (Pan paniscus)., Methods: We investigated the deaths of two bonobos that were suspicious of EMCV using a combination of histopathology, immunohistochemistry and, for one of the two bonobos, reverse transcription PCR., Results: Histopathological examination of heart tissue from the two bonobos showed changes characteristic of EMCV. Immunohistochemical studies confirmed the presence of EMCV antigen in heart tissue of both and in kidney and intestine of one of the bonobos. EMCV RNA was also isolated from the serum of the bonobo tested., Conclusion: Together, these findings confirm that EMCV was responsible for deaths of the two bonobos. Strict separation of bonobos in particular and captive primates in general from potential sources of EMCV contamination should be maintained to prevent mortality caused by EMCV., (© 2011 John Wiley & Sons A/S.)

Although encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) infection has been commonly documented among domestic animals, less is known about EMCV transmission among humans. Recently, we described the isolation of EMCV from two febrile patients in Peru. To further investigate EMCV transmission in Peru, we screened febrile patients reporting to health clinics in Peru for serological evidence of recent EMCV infection. We also conducted a serological survey for EMCV-neutralizing antibodies in the city of Iquitos, located in the Amazon basin department of Loreto, Peru. Additionally, we screened serum from rodents collected from 10 departments in Peru for evidence of EMCV exposure. EMCV infection was found to be only rarely associated with acute febrile disease in Peru, accounting for <1% of febrile episodes analyzed. Despite the low acute disease burden associated with the virus, human exposure was quite common, as prevalence of EMCV-neutralizing antibodies ranged between 6.0% in the coastal city of Tumbes and >17% in cities in the tropical rainforest of northeastern Peru (Iquitos and Yurimaguas). On the basis of the serological survey conducted in Iquitos, risk factors for past infection include increased age, socioeconomic indicators such as residence construction materials and neighborhood, and swine ownership. Evidence from the rodent survey indicates that EMCV exposure is common among Murinae subfamily rodents in Peru (9.4% EMCV IgG positive), but less common among Sigmodontinae rodents (1.0% positive). Further studies are necessary to more precisely delineate the mode of EMCV transmission to humans, other potential disease manifestations, and the economic impact of EMCV transmission among swine in Peru.

Background: There are few systemic pathologic studies on myocarditis. This study aimed to clarify the pathologic characteristics of murine myocarditis., Methods: We recorded serial electrocardiograms in experimental viral myocarditis in mice and then examined their cardiac pathology. After taking baseline electrocardiograms, we inoculated the mice intraperitoneally with the encephalomyocarditis virus. Electrocardiograms were serially recorded until 220 days after the virus inoculation., Results: Serial electrocardiograms revealed ectopic beats, low voltage of the QRS complex, and the appearance of complete atrioventricular (AV) block. Corresponding myocardial lesions were found in the hearts of mice with these ectopic beats. Mononuclear cell infiltrations into the His bundle were most frequently found in mice with complete AV block., Conclusions: Inflammatory change with cellular infiltrations was the most common pathologic finding in mice with complete AV block. In clinical settings, anti-inflammatory therapy might be recommended for patients with myocarditis complicated with conduction disturbances.

The present study was carried out to clarify the mode of encephalomyocarditis (EMC) virus infection in pregnant mice. Pregnant BALB/c mice were intraperitoneally inoculated with the D variant of EMC virus (EMC-D) (5 x 10(2) PFU/mouse) on 11 days of gestation and killed at 1, 3, and 5 days post-inoculation (DPI). The virus titer (dam's serum, placenta, and fetus), histopathology (fetus, placenta, and uterus), distribution of viral RNA (fetus, placenta and uterus), and ultrastructure (fetal heart and placenta) were examined. No deaths occurred to fetuses at 1 DPI but almost all fetuses died at 5 DPI. The virus titers of dam's serum and placenta were elevated at 1 DPI, peaked at 3 DPI, and the former was not detected at 5 DPI. The virus titer of fetus was first elevated at 3 DPI and the level was lower than those of others. Histopathological changes and signals of viral RNAs detected by in situ hybridization (ISH) were observed in the spongiotrophoblast layer of placenta and in the fetal myocardium and liver at 3 DPI. The uterus was free from lesions and signals of viral RNA. Ultrastructural changes developed in trophoblast cells and giant cells in the spongiotrophoblast layer at and after 1 DPI and in fetal myocardial cells at 3 DPI. In the cytoplasm of trophoblast cells and giant cells, aggregations of virus-like particles 20-30 nm in diameter were observed in crystalline array. These results suggest that trophoblast cells and giant cells in the spongiotrophoblast layer are the main target of EMC virus in the placenta and that placental damage as well as the direct effect of virus to fetuses may be a cause of fetal death.

Pregnant mice of the BALB/c CrSlc strain were experimentally infected with the D variant of encephalomyocarditis virus (EMC-D, 5 x 10(2) PFU/head) on three different gestational days (GD). Mice were intraperitoneally inoculated with EMC-D on 11, 13 and 15 GD and sacrificed 3 days post inoculation. There was no significant difference in the fetal mortality among all inoculation groups. Placenta showed higher virus titer than fetus and dam's serum in all inoculation groups, and the virus titer of the fetus was lowest in the 15GD group. Histopathological changes and signals of viral RNAs detected by in situ hybridization were observed almost restricted to the spongiotrophoblast layer of the placenta in all inoculation groups, and the signals were strongest in the 11GD group. In the fetus of the11GD group, signals of viral RNAs were also seen in myocardium and hepatocytes. Ultrastructurally, intracytoplasmic aggregations of virus-like particles in crystalline array were observed in trophoblast cells and giant cells in the spongiotrophoblast layer in all inoculation groups.

Objectives: We examined effects of immunoglobulin on murine myocarditis induced by encephalomyocarditis virus, not pathogenic to humans, and analyzed the plasma cytokine and catecholamine levels and the changes of the extracellular matrix with or without the treatment., Background: We have previously shown that immunoglobulin therapy suppressed murine coxsackievirus B3 myocarditis by an antiviral effect. However, it is not yet determined whether beneficial effects of immunoglobulin for myocarditis are due to antiviral effects or to other unknown effects., Methods: Antiviral activity of human immunoglobulin (Polyglobin-N) against encephalomyocarditis virus was determined in vitro. Immunoglobulin (1 g/kg/day) was administered intraperitoneally to the virus-infected mice daily for two weeks, beginning simultaneously with virus inoculation in experiment I and on day 14 after virus inoculation in experiment II., Results: Antiviral activity of immunoglobulin could not be detected in the assay of a plaque-reduction method in vitro. The in vivo study showed that immunoglobulin administration ameliorated both myocardial necrosis with interstitial fibrin deposition in experiment I and interstitial fibrosis with the improvement of ventricular remodeling in experiment II by the reduction of plasma catecholamines, interferon-alpha, and soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1., Conclusions: Immunoglobulin therapy could suppress myocarditis associated with the improvement of extracellular matrix changes by the reduction of neurohumoral activity.

Although the ability of serum-neutralizing antibodies to protect against picornavirus infection is well established, the contribution of cell-mediated immunity to protection is uncertain. Using major histocompatibility complex class II-deficient (RHAbeta-/-) mice, which are unable to mediate CD4(+) T-lymphocyte-dependent humoral responses, we demonstrated antibody-independent protection against lethal encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) infection in the natural host. The majority of RHAbeta-/- mice inoculated with 10(4) PFU of attenuated Mengo virus (vMC24) resolved infection and were resistant to lethal challenge with the highly virulent, serotypically identical cardiovirus, EMCV. Protection in these mice was in the absence of detectable serum-neutralizing antibodies. Depletion of CD8(+) T lymphocytes prior to lethal EMCV challenge ablated protection in vMC24-immunized RHAbeta-/- mice. The CD8(+) T-lymphocyte-dependent protection observed in vivo may, in part, be the result of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) activity, as CD8(+) T splenocytes exhibited in vitro cytolysis of EMCV-infected targets. The existence of virus-specific CD8(+) T-lymphocyte memory in these mice was demonstrated by increased expression of cell surface activation markers CD25, CD69, CD71, and CTLA-4 following antigen-specific reactivation in vitro. Although recall response in vMC24-immunized RHAbeta-/- mice was intact and effectual shortly after immunization, protection abated over time, as only 3 of 10 vMC24-immunized RHAbeta-/- mice survived when rechallenged 90 days later. The present study demonstrating CD8(+) T-lymphocyte-dependent protection in the absence of serum-neutralizing antibodies, coupled with our previous results indicating that vMC24-specific CD4(+) T lymphocytes confer protection against lethal EMCV in the absence of prophylactic antibodies, suggests the existence of nonhumoral protective mechanisms against picornavirus infections.

The presence of autoantibodies in the sera of patients with myocarditis has suggested that autoimmunity is a sequela of myocarditis. In this study, we examined anti-vimentin antibodies in a murine model of myocarditis. Four-week-old male DBA/2 mice were inoculated intraperitoneally with 10 plaque-forming units of encephalomyocarditis (EMC) virus. The surviving mice were killed on Days 0 (n = 7), 2 (n = 6), 5 (n = 6), 7 (n = 6), 9 (n = 6), 14 (n = 5), 60 (n = 6) and 540 (n = 3) after virus inoculation. The presence of anti-vimentin autoantibodies in the sera of mice was determined by ELISA. The optical density (OD) of anti-vimentin IgG and IgM autoantibodies of day 0 mice was 0.03 +/- 0.03 and 0.12 +/- 0.08, respectively, when positive antibody was defined as over the mean value plus 2-standard deviations of the sera of day 0 mice, anti-vimentin IgG antibodies were negative before day 5 but positive in all mice on day 9. Both IgG and IgM OD of the sera from day 9 mice (IgG; 0.26 +/- 0.12, IgM; 0.30 +/- 0.08) were significantly higher than those of the sera from day 0 mice (p < 0.005) and decreased thereafter on day 14. In the chronic stage, five of six mice were positive on day 60 and two of three mice were positive on day 540. Although further studies are needed to elucidate the pathogenetic role of anti-vimentin antibodies, these antibodies may be a parameter of the interstitial injury.