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The recent (re-)emergence of gender-transformative approaches in the development sector has focused on transforming the gender norms, dynamics, and structures which perpetuate inequalities. Yet, the application of gender-transformative approaches within water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) programing remains nascent as compared with other sectors. Adopting a feminist sensemaking approach drawing on literature and practice, this inquiry sought to document and critically reflect on the conceptualization and innovation of gender-transformative thinking in the Australian Government's Water for Women Fund. Through three sensemaking workshops and associated analysis, participants developed a conceptual framework and set of illustrative case examples to support WASH practitioners to integrate strengthened gender-transformative practice. The multi-layered framework contains varied entry points to support multi-disciplinary WASH teams integrating gender equality, as skills and resources permit. Initiatives can be categorized as insensitive, sensitive, responsive or transformative, and prompted by five common motivators (welfare, efficiency, equity, empowerment, and transformative requality). The framework has at its foundation two diverging tendencies: toward instrumental gender potential and toward transformative gender potential. The article draws on historical and recent WASH literature to illustrate the conceptual framework in relation to: (i) community mobilization, (ii) governance, service provision, and oversight, and (iii) enterprise development. The illustrative examples provide practical guidance for WASH practitioners integrating gendered thinking into programs, projects, and policies. We offer a working definition for gender-transformative WASH and reflect on how the acknowledgment, consideration, and transformation of gender inequalities can lead to simultaneously strengthened WASH outcomes and improved gender equality.

INTRODUCTION: Poor access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services threatens population health and contributes to gender and social inequalities, especially in low-resource settings. Despite awareness in the WASH sector of the importance of promoting gender equality and social inclusion (GESI) to address these inequalities, evaluations of interventions focus largely on health outcomes, while gender equality and other social outcomes are rarely included. This review aimed to collate and describe available research evidence of GESI outcomes evaluated in WASH intervention studies. METHODS: We applied a systematic mapping methodology and searched for both academic and grey literature published between 2010 and 2020 in 16 bibliographic databases and 53 specialist websites. Eligibility screening (with consistency checking) was conducted according to predetermined criteria, followed by metadata coding and narrative synthesis. RESULTS: Our evidence base comprises 463 intervention studies. Only 42% of studies measured transformative GESI outcomes of WASH interventions, referring to those that seek to transform gender relations and power imbalances to promote equality. A majority of studies disaggregated outcome data by sex, but other forms of data disaggregation were limited. Most included studies (78%) lacked a specific GESI mainstreaming component in their intervention design. Of the interventions with GESI mainstreaming, the majority targeted women and girls, with very few focused on other social groups or intersectional considerations. CONCLUSION: The review points to various areas for future primary and secondary research. Given the potential contribution of WASH to GESI, GESI considerations should be incorporated into the evaluation of WASH interventions. Regular collection of data and monitoring of GESI outcomes is needed as well as developing new and testing existing methods for monitoring and evaluation of such data.

Efforts to expand the delivery of water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) services are occurring in the context of increasing pressures on the environmental and resource systems on which WASH services depend. As such, it is imperative to explore how sustainability considerations can be made central to WASH initiatives in ways that strengthen both service delivery and environmental systems. This article contributes insights from a transdisciplinary knowledge co-production process designed to bridge conceptual and practical priorities in a sectoral context – the WASH sector – with the intent to inform transformations at multiple levels from local practice through to global discourse. The co-production process was held online with a select group of WASH professionals from 10 countries. The design involved three components: engaging with worldviews and sustainability concepts; discussing the practical relevance of featured research studies in participant's professional roles; and co-creating ideas about desirable futures and transformation pathways. Findings from the process relate to its method, outcomes and implications for future knowledge co-production across four themes: (i) fostering self-reflection and engaging with purpose; (ii) considering sustainability across scales and contexts; (iii) generating ideas for individual and sectoral action; and (iv) reflecting on researcher power and considerations for future co-production processes. The case demonstrates the potential for co-production in a sectoral context to foster generative self-reflection, shared understandings and practical ideas for action towards sustainability transformations. Methodological insights suggest that future knowledge co-production proponents could beneficially emphasize purpose, work across scales and contexts, and take a reflexive approach to power.

In most countries, local governments bear primary responsibility for ensuring everyone has access to water and sanitation services. For the human rights to water and sanitation to move from recognition to realisation, they need to become part of the everyday practice of local authorities. Yet the potential for the human rights to water and sanitation to practically inform local efforts towards inclusive, sustainable service delivery has received limited attention to date, with human rights discourse more typically focusing on national and international levels or on building the capacity of rights holders to claim their rights from government. There is considerable opportunity to consider how human rights can constructively inform local government efforts to expand and improve services. This Communication article presents a novel approach to making human rights relevant and actionable for local authorities. Developed by a consortium of WASH-focused organisations and informed by design thinking, the Making Rights Real approach combines user-centred materials showing how human rights can inform local action, with a process of constructive engagement between civil society and local government professionals. The Making Rights Real approach has been applied in 12 countries by 37 civil society organisations to date. In this paper, we describe the development and features of the Making Rights Real approach, share initial results from its implementation, and reflect on the potential for the approach to catalyse transformational change towards local realisation of the human rights to water and sanitation.

The emergence of gender-transformative approaches in the international development sector has ushered in a new paradigm for gender and development, refocusing on core feminist principles. This rise has paralleled the growth of transformative research and a strengthened emphasis on social transformations in the field of international development practice. Gender-transformative approaches aim to reshape gender dynamics by redistributing resources, expectations and responsibilities between women, men, and non-binary gender identities, often focusing on norms, power, and collective action. In this paper, we trace the history of gender-transformative approaches (1990 to March 2022); explore the breadth of applications in development described in both grey and academic literature; and identify five principles to guide future gender-transformative approaches with a focus on interventions. We hope that these clarifying principles will make the rich conceptual contribution of gender-transformative thinking relevant to a broad audience of researchers and practitioners and provide a basis for further academic debate and refinement.

Introduction: Equal access to water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) for all requires leadership that prioritises and drives inclusion. Inclusive WASH also presents opportunities to advance equality more widely, with WASH a pathway to meaningful participation and empowerment for diverse groups. The concept of gender-transformative leadership-which connects ideas of leadership to transformative models of gender equality in development theory that challenge prevailing power structures-is a relevant lens for exploring inclusive WASH. This article shares findings and reflections from a positive deviance study that aimed to investigate gender-transformative leadership in the WASH sector to explore (i) the factors shaping gender-transformative leadership and the characteristics of gender-transformative leaders; (ii) actions taken by gender-transformative leaders; (iii) the types of outcomes achieved; and (iv) ways to strengthen gender-transformative leadership. Methods: The study was undertaken during the COVID-19 pandemic and consisted of interviews with 19 leaders in Bhutan, Lao People's Democratic Republic, and Nepal. We developed a conceptual framework which considers leaders' (i) personal values and traits; (ii) leadership styles; (iii) actions; and (iv) outcomes, influenced by a range of (v) enabling factors and barriers. Results: Leaders' personal values and traits included a strong learning orientation, social justice values, humility, courage, and altruism. Leadership styles were primarily empathetic, with leaders guided by a mission to lead by example and pursue equality in their professional and personal lives. Exploration of actions and outcomes revealed a range of inclusion-oriented WASH activities responding to pandemic-related challenges, with associated potential outcomes in shifting norms. However, validation of outcomes was not possible due to the study timeframe and complexity of tracing complex social change in a positive deviance study reliant on self-r

Transformative research and evaluation both aim to foster social change as part of the inquiry process, often leveraging participatory and tactile methods with an advocacy objective. One such approach is participatory photography which engages marginalized individuals in image creation and includes activities such as photovoice and photo-elicitation. This article considers opportunities to strengthen the transformative potential of participatory photography activities within the water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) sector. The research comprised two components: 1) a systematic literature review of participatory photography activities in the WASH sector (n = 32) and 2) an empirical case of a photovoice evaluation of a staff-focused gender mainstreaming intervention in Cambodia (n = 20), including a structured survey, structured observations of the evaluation process, and three participatory reflection workshops with program leadership. Drawing on the two components, we reflect on the extent to which photography-based approaches in the WASH-sector have been transformative. Our findings indicate that transformative potential can arise from participatory photography’s process and outcomes. The research identified opportunities for the WASH-sector to strengthen participatory photography by 1) purposefully recruiting participants, 2) creating engaging orientation opportunities, 3) supporting participants in ethical image creation, 4) facilitating image interpretation, and 5) progressing photo-stories into advocacy. The study also considers how participatory photography can address gender inequalities inherent in photography, hence seeking gender-transformation. While these insights were derived for participatory photography activities in the WASH sector, the findings and implications have relevance in other sectors that seek to investigate complex change and foster transformations.

Evaluations of gender equality initiatives in development programmes traditionally assess cognitive dimensions such as knowledge, attitudes, and awareness; and often rely solely on women’s perspectives. Leveraging story-based evaluation methods, this article explores the assessment of complex gender-transformations and focuses on effective question prompts to elicit significant and meaningful narratives of change from both women and men. In collaboration with a development programme in Cambodia, a staff assessment process led to a set of criteria for considering the quality of respondent stories and testing the efficacy of four different question prompts (n = 176): verb-, value-, sphere-, and theme-based. Highlighting aspects of embodiment, the study suggests that verb-based prompts were the most effective at eliciting stories that reflect diverse experiences of both women and men in processes of gender-transformation. Findings from our analysis can support evaluators in balancing simplicity and specificity of questions in assessing the unique experiences of individuals undergoing complex change.

© 2020, © 2020 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group. There is a need to reflect on approaches to reaching all in rural sanitation, given evidence that disadvantaged groups often miss out on benefits from programmes. This article presents approaches from area-wide rural sanitation programming undertaken by SNV across five countries. Analysis identified ten strategies used in combination to support inclusion. The article describes the strategies and their application, then presents four implications for the rural sanitation sector: the value of a “toolbox” approach; co-creation of strategies with stakeholders; recognition of local government as a driver of inclusive services; and the need to strengthen evidence on how strategies contribute to success.

© 2020, IWA Publishing. All rights reserved. The connections between gender and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) are profound, and the sector is beginning to explore the integration of gender-transformative principles into WASH programming and research. Gender-transformative approaches challenge inequalities and move beyond an instrumentalist approach to gender in development interventions. Through a critical review of academic empirical studies, this paper explores the last decade of WASH-gender literature (2008–2018). Trends were visualised using an alluvial diagram. The reviewed literature was underpinned by a diversity of disciplines, yet was dominated by women-focused, water-focused studies. Although the studies addressed many important gender considerations, few studies engaged with transformational aspects of gender equality. The majority of the studies were based in rural sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, indicating opportunity to explore contextual dynamics in other areas of the global south. Lastly, the studies primarily focus on women of productive age; only a few studies touched on gender dynamics relevant for a diversity of women, and men and boys were mostly absent. Insights from this analysis can inform future studies at the intersection of WASH and gender. Researchers and practitioners are encouraged to include a diversity of voices, reflect on the strengths and limitations of research disciplines, and incorporate gender-transformative concepts.

© 2019 Water Alternatives Association. While citywide sanitation planning is perceived to be an enabler of coordinated improvements in sanitation services for developing countries, intended outcomes have often been elusive. In order to illustrate how political economy, chosen planning approaches, and ideas about change and development have acted as determinants of outcomes, this paper draws on three case study countries that took qualitatively different approaches to sanitation planning - Indonesia, the Philippines and Malaysia. The analysis found that the assumptions informing the planning methods were often not valid, which then undermined the potential for successful implementation. Based on the analysis, the paper argues that urban sanitation planning and implementation in developing countries needs to be transformed to reduce the emphasis on comprehensiveness and instead emphasise flexibility, a learning orientation and strategically chosen incentives. This approach demands tighter cycles of planning and action, direct testing of assumptions, and an in-depth understanding of the local- and national-level political economy and the links between them. It requires innovation to be enabled, with funding mechanisms that focus on outcome rather than input. In this way it would be possible to shift away from the typical emphasis on prescriptive procedural planning steps and towards delivery of the much-needed improved sanitation outcomes.

In a rapidly changing world, WASH services are often exposed to a range of unpredictable social, environmental, economic, and physical disturbances that disrupt WASH access. Social-ecological system (SES) resilience thinking can inform WASH service delivery approaches that adapt to changing conditions in order to sustain access for users rather than resist change. In this chapter, we familiarize readers with SES resilience thinking and consider its application to WASH services. We outline three key processes that practitioners can follow to get themselves and other stakeholders into an SES resilience mindset: mapping WASH systems, considering SES resilience principles, and identifying areas for interventions. We provide illustrative examples and resources to assist practitioners in thinking about how SES resilience concepts can be used to plan for WASH services that are flexible and adaptive. We also consider some limitations and pitfalls to SES resilience concepts to encourage readers to take a critical approach.

© 2019 Elsevier Ltd The delivery of water services to the poor is lagging, yet local causes and manifestations of this are not well understood. Better data is needed to identify inequalities where they occur, explore underlying reasons, and develop strategies to achieve more equitable access. A focus on the local scale is important because this is where water services are delivered, and inequalities in access can be best observed. This paper presents a mixed-methods study of poor households’ access to piped water in rural Viet Nam, providing insight into local dynamics of the water/poverty nexus. Findings pointed to lower rates of piped water access for poor households across areas served by government, private and community service providers. Connection fees were found to be the primary barrier to poor households accessing available piped services. The study also found that where financial support is provided, poor households can achieve comparable or even higher rates of access. Key implications of the study are the demonstrated value of, and yet challenges associated with, rigorous local-level monitoring to ensure equitable, quality service delivery.

© 2019 by the authors. Groundwater is widely acknowledged to be an important source of drinking water in low-income regions, and it, therefore, plays a critical role in the realization of the human right to water. However, the proportion of households using groundwater compared with other sources is rarely quantified, with national and global datasets more focused on facilities-rather than resources-used. This is a significant gap in knowledge, particularly in light of efforts to expand water services in line with the inclusive and integrated agenda of the Sustainable Development Goals. Understanding the prevalence of groundwater reliance for drinking is critical for those involved in water services planning and management, so they can better monitor and advocate for management of water resources that supports sustainable services for households. This paper contributes data that can be used to strengthen the integration of resource considerations within water service delivery and inform the work of development partners supporting this area. We approach this issue from two perspectives. Firstly, we collate data on the proportion of households using groundwater as their primary drinking water source for 10 Southeast Asian and Pacific nations, finding an average of 62% (range of 17-93% for individual countries) of households in urban areas and 60% (range of 22-95%) of households in rural areas rely on groundwater for drinking. Together, these constitute 79% of the total population across the case study countries. Secondly, we review current and emerging groundwater resource concerns within each country, using a systems thinking approach to assess how groundwater resource issues influence household water services. Findings support the case for governments and development agencies to strengthen engagement with groundwater resource management as foundational for achieving sustainable water services for all.

© IWA Publishing. This case study presents an innovative initiative to facilitate safe reuse of faecal sludge (FS) by introducing the World Health Organisation’s multi-barrier approach within a Farmer Field Schools framework for participatory experiential learning. A novel FS treatment process based on fermentation by ‘effective organisms’ (EM) was piloted to test the feasibility, safety and acceptability of the resulting fertilizer. Fermented FS in agricultural application was found to perform at least as well as other common fertilizers it was compared with, while its lower cost delivered higher profits per cultivated hectare. Participating farmers found it easy to prepare and use, and viewed it favourably overall. EM-based fermentation was, however, found to be insufficient as an FS treatment to render safe reuse, particularly with respect to helminth inactivation. The paper discusses strengthening the treatment barrier, and improving the application of the multi-barrier approach by the systematic consideration of non-treatment barriers using guidance from the WHO’s Sanitation Safety Planning Manual. Further research to enable effective monitoring and support systems for maintaining treatment and non-treatment barriers, and for understanding long term impacts of fermented FS application is recommended. In combination, adequately treated fermented FS may be a candidate for scale up necessary for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals.

© 2017 The Authors. This study examined the sanitation hardware supply chain in rural, low density settings in Indonesia and Vietnam. Actual costs along the chains were investigated to understand the challenges and opportunities to support affordable sanitation in remote, rural locations. Data were collected from four remote districts in Indonesia and Vietnam through a systematic value-chain analysis comprising 378 interviews across households and supply chain actors and both quantitative and qualitative analysis. Three main findings are presented. Firstly, poor households, often located in remote areas and with lower sanitation access, often experienced higher costs to build durable latrines than households in accessible areas or district capitals. Second, locally sourced materials (sand, bricks or gravel) had a greater influence on price than externally sourced materials (cement, steel and toilet pans), even accounting for cost increases of these materials along the supply chain. Thirdly, transport and labour costs represented considerable proportions of the overall cost to build a toilet. These findings highlighted logistical and financial barriers to poor, remote households in accessing sanitation. Findings can inform strategies to improve the availability and affordability of sanitation products and services, in particular key issues that need to be addressed through government and non-government pro-poor market-based interventions.

© IWA Publishing 2017. The significant challenge of achieving safe, reliable and continuous service delivery has been a focus of the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) sector in recent years, with less attention given to other important sustainability considerations such as environmental sustainability. The agenda set by the Sustainable Development Goals prompts a wider lens, bringing water resource management and ecosystem conservation together with water and sanitation access targets in one integrated goal. As we grapple with our approach to this new agenda, it is timely to reflect on how we, as a sector, engage with environmental sustainability. This paper reviews recent literature at the intersection of WASH and environmental sustainability to identify current themes and future directions. Analysis of academic and non-academic sources was undertaken and then situated with reference to the planetary boundaries framework as a useful lens to ground the socio-ecological systems and processes upon which environmental sustainability depends. Findings point to both opportunities and gaps within current sector thinking, which can drive leadership from knowledge and research institutions towards better integration of access and environmental sustainability imperatives.