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Loss-of-function mutations in the chromodomain helicase DNA-binding 8 (CHD8) gene are strongly associated with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Indeed, the reduction of CHD8 causes transcriptional, epigenetic, and cellular phenotypic changes correlated to disease, which can be monitored in assessing new therapeutic approaches. SINEUPs are a functional class of natural and synthetic antisense long non-coding RNAs able to stimulate the translation of sense target mRNA, with no effect on transcription. Here, we employed synthetic SINEUP-CHD8 targeting the first and third AUG of the CHD8 coding sequence to efficiently stimulate endogenous CHD8 protein production. SINEUP-CHD8 were effective in cells with reduced levels of the target protein and in patient-derived fibroblasts with CHD8 mutations. Functionally, SINEUP-CHD8 were able to revert molecular phenotypes associated with CHD8 suppression, i.e., genome-wide transcriptional dysregulation, and the reduction of H3K36me3 levels. Strikingly, in chd8-morpholino-treated and ENU mutant zebrafish embryos, SINEUP-chd8 injection confirmed the ability of SINEUP RNA to rescue the chd8-suppression-induced macrocephaly phenotype and neuronal hyperproliferation. Thus, SINEUP-CHD8 molecule(s) represent a proof-of-concept toward the development of an RNA-based therapy for neurodevelopmental syndromes with implications for, and beyond ASD, and relevant to genetic disorders caused by protein haploinsufficiency., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests M.B., S.G., F.D.L., and M.A. are named inventors in a patent issued by the Italian patent office no. 102022000011546 deposited on May 31, 2022, and PCT/IT2023/050128 deposited on 5 May, 2023 (WO2023233437A1)., (Copyright © 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background: The vitreous humor serves as a window into the physiological and pathological processes of the eye, particularly the retina. Diabetic retinopathy (DR), a leading cause of blindness, involves hyperglycemia-induced damage to retinal cells, leading to ischemia and elevated nitric oxide levels, culminating in vascular proliferation. Rhegmatogenous retinal detachment (RD) results from a break in the neuroretina, triggering ischemia, photoreceptor death, and cellular proliferation. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy (PVR) further complicates these conditions through fibrous proliferation. Despite their prevalence and potential for blindness, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying these vitreoretinal diseases is incomplete., Methods and Results: To elucidate disease mechanisms and identify potential therapeutic targets, we conducted a comparative proteomic analysis of vitreous samples from DR, RD, and macular pucker (P) patients, which were chosen as controls. LC-MS analysis identified 988 quantifiable proteins, with distinct clustering observed among disease groups. Differential expression analysis revealed 202 proteins in RD vs. P and 167 in DR vs. P, highlighting distinct proteomic signatures. Enrichment analysis identified glucose metabolism as an altered process in both diseases, suggesting common pathways despite differing etiologies. Notably, aldo-keto reductase family 1 member B1 (AKR1B1) has emerged as a potential key player in both DR and RD, indicating its role in glucose metabolism and inflammation. In silico drug screening identified diclofenac, an approved ophthalmic non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), as a potential therapeutic agent targeting AKR1B1., Conclusion: Our study revealed distinct proteomic signatures and common pathways in vitreoretinal diseases, highlighting AKR1B1 as a potential therapeutic target. Using diclofenac during diagnosis and postoperative care for diabetic retinopathy or rhegmatogenous retinal detachment may reduce complications, lower costs, and improve quality of life. Future research will focus on confirming AKR1B1's role in vitreoretinal diseases and understanding diclofenac's mechanism of action., Competing Interests: Declarations. Ethics approval and consent to participate: Approval from the Azienda Provinciale per I Servizi Sanitari—Trento Institutional Review Board was obtained (APSS Protocol 7.2.4—n. 1684|2021), and written informed consent was acquired in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki on Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Genomic mechanisms enhancing risk in males may contribute to sex bias in autism. The ubiquitin protein ligase E3A gene ( Ube3a ) affects cellular homeostasis via control of protein turnover and by acting as transcriptional coactivator with steroid hormone receptors. Overdosage of Ube3a via duplication or triplication of chromosomal region 15q11-13 causes 1 to 2% of autistic cases. Here, we test the hypothesis that increased dosage of Ube3a may influence autism-relevant phenotypes in a sex-biased manner. We show that mice with extra copies of Ube3a exhibit sex-biasing effects on brain connectomics and autism-relevant behaviors. These effects are associated with transcriptional dysregulation of autism-associated genes, as well as genes differentially expressed in 15q duplication and in autistic people. Increased Ube3a dosage also affects expression of genes on the X chromosome, genes influenced by sex steroid hormone, and genes sex-differentially regulated by transcription factors. These results suggest that Ube3a overdosage can contribute to sex bias in neurodevelopmental conditions via influence on sex-differential mechanisms.

Inherited retinal dystrophies are caused by mutations in more than 250 genes, each of them carrying several types of mutations that can lead to different clinical phenotypes. Mutations in Retinitis Pigmentosa GTPase-Regulator ( RPGR ) cause X-linked Retinitis pigmentosa (RP). A nucleotide substitution in intron 9 of RPGR causes the increase of an alternatively spliced isoform of the mature mRNA, bearing exon 9a (E9a). This introduces a stop codon, leading to truncation of the protein. Aiming at restoring impaired gene expression, we developed an antisense RNA-based therapeutic approach for the skipping of RPGR E9a. We designed a set of specific U1 antisense snRNAs (U1_asRNAs) and tested their efficacy in vitro , upon transient cotransfection with RPGR minigene reporter systems in HEK-293T, 661W, and PC-12 cell lines. We thus identified three chimeric U1_asRNAs that efficiently mediate E9a skipping, correcting the genetic defect. Unexpectedly, the U1-5'antisense construct, which exhibited the highest exon-skipping efficiency in PC-12 cells, induced E9a inclusion in HEK-293T and 661W cells, indicating caution in the choice of preclinical model systems when testing RNA splicing-correcting therapies. Our data provide a proof of principle for the application of U1_snRNA exon skipping-based approach to correct splicing defects in RPGR .

Human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) represent an unlimited cell source for the generation of patient-specific dopaminergic (DA) neurons, overcoming the hurdle of restricted accessibility to disease-affected tissue for mechanistic studies on Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the complexity of the human brain is not fully recapitulated by existing monolayer culture methods. Neurons differentiated in a three dimensional (3D) in vitro culture system might better mimic the in vivo cellular environment for basic mechanistic studies and represent better predictors of drug responses in vivo . In this work we established a new in vitro cell culture system based on the microencapsulation of hiPSCs in small alginate/fibronectin beads and their differentiation to DA neurons. Optimization of hydrogel matrix concentrations and composition allowed a high viability of embedded hiPSCs. Neural differentiation competence and efficiency of DA neuronal generation were increased in the 3D cultures compared to a conventional 2D culture methodology. Additionally, electrophysiological parameters and metabolic switching profile confirmed increased functionality and an anticipated metabolic resetting of neurons grown in alginate scaffolds with respect to their 2D counterpart neurons. We also report long-term maintenance of neuronal cultures and preservation of the mature functional properties. Furthermore, our findings indicate that our 3D model system can recapitulate mitochondrial superoxide production as an important mitochondrial phenotype observed in neurons derived from PD patients, and that this phenotype might be detectable earlier during neuronal differentiation. Taken together, these results indicate that our alginate-based 3D culture system offers an advantageous strategy for the reliable and rapid derivation of mature and functional DA neurons from hiPSCs., Competing Interests: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Gilmozzi, Gentile, Riekschnitz, Von Troyer, Lavdas, Kerschbamer, Weichenberger, Rosato-Siri, Casarosa, Conti, Pramstaller, Hicks, Pichler and Zanon.)

High intensity resistance training (HI-RT) is a treatment option for Knee Osteoarthritis (KOA). Isotonic machines (leg press, leg extension) are utilized for standardization and reproducibility reasons, but the load used during the protocol is often low, considering that elder people usually have low strength levels, training so with high intensities calculated on low loads. The physiological response of an elder woman trained with high loads on a free weight exercise, the regular barbell deadlift, with a 1 Repetition Maximum (1RM) of 100 kg, can be appreciated in this report, so that for the first time we can see the effect of a one year of high intensity resistance training program on a powerlifting exercise on a 72 year-old woman with KOA. A Western Ontario and McMaster Universities Arthritis Index (WOMAC) questionnaire was administered before starting the training program (T0) and after 1 year of training, as long as a control RX, to evaluate the effect of HI-RT on joint functionality and quality of life., Competing Interests: None of the authors have relevant interests to disclose., (© 2021 The Authors.)

Impaired function of GABAergic interneurons, and the subsequent alteration of excitation/inhibition balance, is thought to contribute to autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Altered numbers of GABAergic interneurons and reduced expression of GABA receptors has been detected in the brain of ASD subjects and mouse models of ASD. We previously showed a reduced expression of GABAergic interneuron markers parvalbumin (PV) and somatostatin (SST) in the forebrain of adult mice lacking the Engrailed2 gene ( En2 -/- mice). Here, we extended this analysis to postnatal day (P) 30 by using in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and quantitative RT-PCR to study the expression of GABAergic interneuron markers in the hippocampus and somatosensory cortex of En2 -/- and wild type (WT) mice. In addition, GABA receptor subunit mRNA expression was investigated by quantitative RT-PCR in the same brain regions of P30 and adult En2 -/- and WT mice. As observed in adult animals, PV and SST expression was decreased in En2 -/- forebrain of P30 mice. The expression of GABA receptor subunits (including the ASD-relevant Gabrb3 ) was also altered in young and adult En2 -/- forebrain. Our results suggest that GABAergic neurotransmission deficits are already evident at P30, confirming that neurodevelopmental defects of GABAergic interneurons occur in the En2 mouse model of ASD., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Inherited retinal diseases (IRDs) represent a frequent cause of genetic blindness. Their high genetic heterogeneity hinders the application of gene-specific therapies to the vast majority of patients. We recently demonstrated that the microRNA miR-204 is essential for retinal function, although the underlying molecular mechanisms remain poorly understood. Here, we investigated the therapeutic potential of miR-204 in IRDs. We subretinally delivered an adeno-associated viral (AAV) vector carrying the miR-204 precursor to two genetically different IRD mouse models. The administration of AAV-miR-204 preserved retinal function in a mouse model for a dominant form of retinitis pigmentosa (RHO-P347S). This was associated with a reduction of apoptotic photoreceptor cells and with a better preservation of photoreceptor marker expression. Transcriptome analysis showed that miR-204 shifts expression profiles of transgenic retinas toward those of healthy retinas by the downregulation of microglia activation and photoreceptor cell death. Delivery of miR-204 exerted neuroprotective effects also in a mouse model of Leber congenital amaurosis, due to mutations of the Aipl1 gene. Our study highlights the mutation-independent therapeutic potential of AAV-miR204 in slowing down retinal degeneration in IRDs and unveils the previously unreported role of this miRNA in attenuating microglia activation and photoreceptor cell death., (Copyright © 2019 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Silicon is a promising material for tissue engineering since it allows to produce micropatterned scaffolding structures resembling biological tissues. Using specific fabrication methods, it is possible to build aligned 3D network-like structures. In the present study, we exploited vertically-aligned silicon micropillar arrays as culture systems for human iPSC-derived cortical progenitors. In particular, our aim was to mimic the radially-oriented cortical radial glia fibres that during embryonic development play key roles in controlling the expansion, radial migration and differentiation of cortical progenitors, which are, in turn, pivotal to the establishment of the correct multilayered cerebral cortex structure. Here we show that silicon vertical micropillar arrays efficiently promote expansion and stemness preservation of human cortical progenitors when compared to standard monolayer growth conditions. Furthermore, the vertically-oriented micropillars allow the radial migration distinctive of cortical progenitors in vivo. These results indicate that vertical silicon micropillar arrays can offer an optimal system for human cortical progenitors' growth and migration. Furthermore, similar structures present an attractive platform for cortical tissue engineering.

Defective cortical processing of visual stimuli and altered retinal function have been described in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) patients. In keeping with these findings, anatomical and functional defects have been found in the visual cortex and retina of mice bearing mutations for ASD-associated genes. Here we sought to investigate the anatomy and function of the adult retina of Engrailed 2 knockout (En2 -/- ) mice, a model for ASD. Our results showed that En2 is expressed in all three nuclear layers of the adult retina. When compared to age-matched En2 +/+ controls, En2 -/- adult retinas showed a significant decrease in the number of calbindin + horizontal cells, and a significant increase in calbindin + amacrine/ganglion cells. The total number of ganglion cells was not altered in the adult En2 -/- retina, as shown by Brn3a + cell counts. In addition, En2 -/- adult mice showed a significant reduction of photoreceptor (rhodopsin) and bipolar cell (Pcp2, PKCα) markers. Functional defects were also present in the retina of En2 mutants, as indicated by electroretinogram recordings showing a significant reduction in both a-wave and b-wave amplitude in En2 -/- mice as compared to controls. These data show for the first time that anatomical and functional defects are present in the retina of the En2 ASD mouse model., (Copyright © 2019 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Overreactivity and defensive behaviors in response to tactile stimuli are common symptoms in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) patients. Similarly, somatosensory hypersensitivity has also been described in mice lacking ASD-associated genes such as Fmr1 (fragile X mental retardation protein 1). Fmr1 knock-out mice also show reduced functional connectivity between sensory cortical areas, which may represent an endogenous biomarker for their hypersensitivity. Here, we measured whole-brain functional connectivity in Engrailed-2 knock-out ( En2 -/- ) adult mice, which show a lower expression of Fmr1 and anatomical defects common to Fmr1 knock-outs. MRI-based resting-state functional connectivity in adult En2 -/- mice revealed significantly reduced synchronization in somatosensory-auditory/associative cortices and dorsal thalamus, suggesting the presence of aberrant somatosensory processing in these mutants. Accordingly, when tested in the whisker nuisance test, En2 -/- but not WT mice of both sexes showed fear behavior in response to repeated whisker stimulation. En2 -/- mice undergoing this test exhibited decreased c-Fos-positive neurons (a marker of neuronal activity) in layer IV of the primary somatosensory cortex and increased immunoreactive cells in the basolateral amygdala compared with WT littermates. Conversely, when tested in a sensory maze, En2 -/- and WT mice spent a comparable time in whisker-guided exploration, indicating that whisker-mediated behaviors are otherwise preserved in En2 mutants. Therefore, fearful responses to somatosensory stimuli in En2 -/- mice are accompanied by reduced basal connectivity of sensory regions, reduced activation of somatosensory cortex, and increased activation of the basolateral amygdala, suggesting that impaired somatosensory processing is a common feature in mice lacking ASD-related genes. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Overreactivity to tactile stimuli is a common symptom in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) patients. Recent studies performed in mice bearing ASD-related mutations confirmed these findings. Here, we evaluated the behavioral response to whisker stimulation in mice lacking the ASD-related gene Engrailed-2 ( En2 -/- mice). Compared with WT controls, En2 -/- mice showed reduced functional connectivity in the somatosensory cortex, which was paralleled by fear behavior, reduced activation of somatosensory cortex, and increased activation of the basolateral amygdala in response to repeated whisker stimulation. These results suggest that impaired somatosensory signal processing is a common feature in mice harboring ASD-related mutations., (Copyright © 2019 the authors 0270-6474/19/391526-14$15.00/0.)

The coordinated interplay between extrinsic activating and repressing cell signaling molecules is pivotal for embryonic development and subsequent tissue homeostasis. This is well exemplified by studies on the evolutionarily conserved Wnt signaling pathways. Tight temporal and spatial regulation of Wnt signaling activity is required throughout lifetime, from maternal stages before gastrulation until and throughout adulthood. Outside cells, the action of numerous Wnt ligands is counteracted and fine-tuned by only a handful of well characterized secreted inhibitors, such as for instance Dickkopf, secreted Frizzled Related Proteins and Cerberus. Here, we give an overview of our current understanding of another secreted Wnt signaling antagonist, the Wnt inhibitory factor Wif1. Wif1 can directly interact with various Wnt ligands and inhibits their binding to membrane bound receptors. Epigenetic promoter methylation of Wif1, leading to silencing of its transcription and concomitant up-regulation of Wnt signaling, is a common feature during cancer progression. Furthermore, an increasing number of reports describe Wif1 involvement in regulating processes during embryonic development, which so far has not received as much attention. We will summarize our knowledge on Wif1 function and its mode of action with a particular focus on the zebrafish ( Danio rerio ). In addition, we highlight the potential of Wif1 research to understand and possibly influence mechanisms underlying eye diseases and regeneration.

The Engrailed-2 (En2) gene codes for a homeobox-containing transcription factor, involved in midbrain-hindbrain embryonic development. In postnatal brain, En2 is expressed in the ventral mesencephalon, cerebellum, hippocampus and neocortex. Two single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) that are associated to autism spectrum disorders (ASD) have been identified in the human EN2 gene. Accordingly, mice lacking the En2 homeodomain (En2 hd/hd , referred to as En2 -/- ) show molecular, anatomical and behavioral "ASD-like" features. Among these, we previously showed a partial loss of GABAergic interneurons in the En2 -/- postnatal hippocampus and neocortex, accompanied by a marked decrease of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling, a crucial determinant of GABAergic differentiation. In order to better investigate the role of En2 in GABAergic interneuron differentiation, we generated and subsequently differentiated neural stem cells (NSCs) from basal ganglia and neocortex of En2 +/+ and En2 -/- mouse embryos. Wild-type NSCs from both basal ganglia and neocortex express En2, while mutant ones do not, as expected. As compared to En2 +/+ NSCs, En2 -/- NSCs derived from basal ganglia show impaired GABAergic differentiation accompanied by a reduced expression of the BDNF receptor trkB. Conversely, En2 -/- NSCs derived from the neocortex expressed high levels of trkB and readily differentiated into neurons, as En2 +/+ NSCs. Our results suggest that En2 contributes to GABAergic neuron differentiation from basal ganglia NSCs through a trkB-dependent BDNF signaling, thus providing a possible explanation for the reduced number of GABAergic interneurons detected in the En2 -/- postnatal forebrain., (Copyright © 2018 IBRO. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Reversine is a potent antitumor 2,6-diamino-substituted purine acting as an Aurora kinases inhibitor and interfering with cancer cell cycle progression. In this study we describe three reversine-related molecules, designed by docking calculation, that present structural modifications in the diamino units at positions 2 and 6. We investigated the conformations of the most stable prototropic tautomers of one of these molecules, the N 6-cyclohexyl- N 6-methyl- N 2-phenyl-7 H -purine-2,6-diamine ( 3 ), by Density Functional Theory (DFT) calculation in the gas phase, water and chloroform, the last solvent considered to give insights into the detection of broad signals in NMR analysis. In all cases the H N (9) tautomer resulted more stable than the H N (7) form, but the most stable conformations changed in different solvents. Molecules 1 ⁻ 3 were evaluated on MCF-7 breast and HCT116 colorectal cancer cell lines showing that, while being less cytotoxic than reversine, they still caused cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase and polyploidy. Unlike reversine, which produced a pronounced cell cycle arrest in G2/M phase in all the cell lines used, similar concentrations of 1 ⁻ 3 were effective only in cells where p53 was deleted or down-regulated. Therefore, our findings support a potential selective role of these structurally simplified, reversine-related molecules in p53-defective cancer cells.

Autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and epilepsy are common neurological diseases of childhood, with an estimated incidence of approximately 0.5-1% of the worldwide population. Several genetic, neuroimaging and neuropathological studies clearly showed that both ASD and epilepsy have developmental origins and a substantial degree of heritability. Most importantly, ASD and epilepsy frequently coexist in the same individual, suggesting a common neurodevelopmental basis for these disorders. Genome-wide association studies recently allowed for the identification of a substantial number of genes involved in ASD and epilepsy, some of which are mutated in syndromes presenting both ASD and epilepsy clinical features. At the cellular level, both preclinical and clinical studies indicate that the different genetic causes of ASD and epilepsy may converge to perturb the excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance, due to the dysfunction of excitatory and inhibitory circuits in various brain regions. Metabolic and immune dysfunctions, as well as environmental causes also contribute to ASD pathogenesis. Thus, an E/I imbalance resulting from neurodevelopmental deficits of multiple origins might represent a common pathogenic mechanism for both diseases. Here, we will review the most significant studies supporting these hypotheses. A deeper understanding of the molecular and cellular determinants of autism-epilepsy comorbidity will pave the way to the development of novel therapeutic strategies., (© 2017 Federation of European Neuroscience Societies and John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Three-dimensional (3D) porous scaffolds combined with therapeutic stem cells play vital roles in tissue engineering. The adult brain has very limited regeneration ability after injuries such as trauma and stroke. In this study, injectable 3D silk fibroin-based hydrogel scaffolds with encapsulated neural stem cells were developed, aiming at supporting brain regeneration. To improve the function of the hydrogel towards neural stem cells, silk fibroin was modified by an IKVAV peptide through covalent binding. Both unmodified and modified silk fibroin hydrogels were obtained, through sonication, with mechanical stiffness comparable to that of brain tissue. Human neural stem cells were encapsulated in both hydrogels and the effects of IKVAV peptide conjugation on cell viability and neural differentiation were assessed. The silk fibroin hydrogel modified by IKVAV peptide showed increased cell viability and an enhanced neuronal differentiation capability, which contributed to understanding the effects of IKVAV peptide on the behaviour of neural stem cells. For these reasons, IKVAV-modified silk fibroin is a promising material for brain tissue engineering. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., (Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Different hydrogel materials have been prepared to investigate the effects of culture substrate on the behaviour of pluripotent cells. In particular, genipin-crosslinked gelatin-silk fibroin hydrogels of different compositions have been prepared, physically characterized and used as substrates for the culture of pluripotent cells. Pluripotent cells cultured on hydrogels remained viable and proliferated. Gelatin and silk fibroin promoted the proliferation of cells in the short and long term, respectively. Moreover, cells cultured on genipin-crosslinked gelatin-silk fibroin blended hydrogels were induced to an epithelial ectodermal differentiation fate, instead of the neural ectodermal fate obtained by culturing on tissue culture plates. This work confirms that specific culture substrates can be used to modulate the behaviour of pluripotent cells and that our genipin-crosslinked gelatin-silk fibroin blended hydrogels can induce pluripotent cells differentiation to an epithelial ectodermal fate. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., (Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.)

Waves of Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) and their antagonists are present during initial eye development, but their possible roles in retinogenesis are still unknown. We have recently shown that noggin 1, a BMP antagonist, renders pluripotent cells able to differentiate into retinal precursors, and might be involved in the maintenance of retinal structures in the adult vertebrate eye. Here, we report that noggin 1, differently from noggin 2 and noggin 4, is expressed during all phases of Xenopus laevis retinal development. Gain-of-function experiments by electroporation in the optic vesicle show that overexpression of noggin 1 significantly decreases the number of bipolar cells in the inner nuclear layer of the retina, without significantly affecting the generation of the other retinal cell types. Our data suggest that BMP signaling could be involved in the differentiation of retinal progenitors into specific retinal subtypes during late phases of vertebrate retinal development.

Many evidences indicate that mice lacking the homeobox transcription factor engrailed-2 (En2(-/-) mice) represent a reliable model to investigate neurodevelopmental basis and gene expression changes relevant to autism spectrum disorders. Dysfunctions in fragile X mental retardation protein (FMRP), metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5), and GABAergic signaling pathways have been proposed as a possible pathogenic mechanism of autism spectrum disorders. Here, we exploited En2(-/-) mice to investigate hippocampal expression of FMRP, mGluR5, and GABA(A) receptor β3 subunit (GABRB3). Quantitative reverse-transcription PCR showed that all these mRNAs were significantly downregulated in En2(-/-) mice compared with wild-type littermates. Western blot and immunohistochemistry confirmed the downregulation of FMRP and GABRB3 proteins, while showing a significant increase of mGluR5 protein in the En2(-/-) hippocampus. Our results suggest that the dysregulation of FMRP-mGluR5 signaling pathway, accompanied with a downregulation of GABRB3 expression, may contribute to the 'autistic-like' features observed in En2 mice, providing possible molecular targets for future pharmacological studies.

Photoreceptors rely upon highly specialized synapses to efficiently transmit signals to multiple postsynaptic targets. Calcium influx in the presynaptic terminal is mediated by voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCC). This event triggers neurotransmitter release, but also gates calcium-activated chloride channels (TMEM), which in turn regulate VGCC activity. In order to investigate the relationship between VGCC and TMEM channels, we analyzed the retina of wild type (WT) and Cacna2d4 mutant mice, in which the VGCC auxiliary α2δ4 subunit carries a nonsense mutation, disrupting the normal channel function. Synaptic terminals of mutant photoreceptors are disarranged and synaptic proteins as well as TMEM16A channels lose their characteristic localization. In parallel, calcium-activated chloride currents are impaired in rods, despite unaltered TMEM16A protein levels. Co-immunoprecipitation revealed the interaction between VGCC and TMEM16A channels in the retina. Heterologous expression of these channels in tsA-201 cells showed that TMEM16A associates with the CaV1.4 subunit, and the association persists upon expression of the mutant α2δ4 subunit. Collectively, our experiments show association between TMEM16A and the α1 subunit of VGCC. Close proximity of these channels allows optimal function of the photoreceptor synaptic terminal under physiological conditions, but also makes TMEM16A channels susceptible to changes occurring to calcium channels.

Retinal progenitors are initially found in the anterior neural plate region known as the eye field, whereas neighboring areas undertake telencephalic or hypothalamic development. Eye field cells become specified by switching on a network of eye field transcription factors, but the extracellular cues activating this network remain unclear. In this study, we used chemically defined media to induce in vitro differentiation of mouse embryonic stem cells (ESCs) toward eye field fates. Inhibition of Wnt/β-catenin signaling was sufficient to drive ESCs to telencephalic, but not retinal, fates. Instead, retinal progenitors could be generated from competent differentiating mouse ESCs by activation of Activin/Nodal signaling within a narrow temporal window corresponding to the emergence of primitive anterior neural progenitors. Activin also promoted eye field gene expression in differentiating human ESCs. Our results reveal insights into the mechanisms of eye field specification and open new avenues toward the generation of retinal progenitors for translational medicine., (Copyright © 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)