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The combination of different materials enables to achieve highly efficient structures in terms of lightweight and mechanical performance, as well as in terms of manufacturing costs. However, the weakest points of these structures use to be the joints. For this reason, in the last years, many studies have dealt with joining technologies for dissimilar materials. The Reinforce3D’s Continuous Fibre Injection Process (CFIP) technology delivers a unique method to join dissimilar materials. CFIP is based on injecting continuous fibers, such as carbon fibers, simultaneously with liquid resin into tubular cavities within the part. Then the resin is cured and the final composite part is obtained. This work focuses on the characterization of the mechanical properties of CFIP-made specimens and describes the potential lightweight benefits of the technology. Mechanical tests were performed under tensile and bending conditions following standardized methods. The lightweight potential is addressed by developing a representative case study by implementing finite element and topology optimization methods. The results of this case study were finally compared with a monomaterial equivalent component (aluminium) demonstrating the improvement that CFIP provides in terms of lightweight while keeping the strength., Full text license: CC BY;ISBN for host publication: 9781644903131; Funder: Catalan Government (TRAÇA-M3DTALL)

Forming of aluminium-CFRP hybrid structures into complex shapes is key to decrease environmental impact in automotive industry. However, challenges such as preserving joint integrity after forming operations must be assessed. Therefore, the authors of this work have cold stamped hybrid aluminium-CFRP panels into omega shaped profiles with and without a mechanical interlocking joining technology. The effect of lubricant application, of the CFRP positioning (inside or outside the omega profile), and of the number of mechanical joints were studied. It was concluded that it is possible to cold stamp aluminium-CFRP prepreg panels even with mechanical joints into complex profiles when lubricant is used. Moreover, the position of the CFRP prepreg has a strong impact on the flange springback of the stamped part., Full text license: CC BY;ISBN for host publication: 9781644903131

The generation of reliable data in the high cycle fatigue domain is crucial to support further metallurgic developments of fatigue optimized steel grades. Commonly employed for this aim, traditional standardized characterization methods are expensive and time-consuming. Thus, to circumvent these limitations, different accelerated fatigue testing methodologies have been proposed. In this work, the rapid fatigue test based on stiffness evolution is numerically reproduced using the finite element method for a specific grade of twinning-induced plasticity steel. A high cycle fatigue constitutive law grounded on the continuum damage mechanics framework is employed for this purpose. To adequately capture the material non-linear behavior observed in the experiments, a novel hardening–softening stress–strain curve for damage is proposed. The entire load history in the fatigue domain is modeled. A cycle-jump algorithm is used to improve the computational efficiency of the simulations. It is shown that a reduction of about 55% in the analysis elapsed time is reached by using this algorithm, while the result accuracy is maintained. Finally, the good agreement between numerical and experimental results, revealed by a maximum relative error smaller than 6.0%, evidences the potential of the present constitutive formulation to model the behavior of metals in the high cycle fatigue domain., Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-01-18 (sofila);Funder: Spanish Government (Spain FPU17/04196); Severo Ochoa Centre of Excellence (grant no. CEX2018-000797-S), Fatigue4Light (H2020-LC-GV-06-2020)

Press Hardening offers the possibility to obtain a wide range of mechanical properties through microstructural tailoring. This strategy has been successfully applied in thin sheet components, for instance, through differential cooling strategies. The application of these added value features to truck components implies adapting the process to the manufacture of thick sheet metal. This introduces an additional layer of complexity, but also opportunity, in a process where the final microstructure and, thus the mechanical performance is generated in the press shop. This work presents a study on optimizing the crash worthiness and impact energy absorption on a press hardened thick 22MnB5 steel sheet. Different microstructure design strategies have been studied, including ferrite-Pearlite (representative of a differential heating and austenitization strategy), in-die generated Bainite (representative of differential cooling) and Tempered Martensite (generated through laser tempering), keeping a fully hardened martensite as a reference condition. The material performance has been compared in terms of the monotonic properties, useful for anti-intrusion performance, and Essential Work of Fracture, a well-suited parameter to predict the crash failure behavior of high strength steels. The results show that laser tempering offers properties similar to Bainite-based microstructures and can be a successful replacement in components where the sheet thickness does not allow for the fine control of the in-die thermomechanical evolution., Godkänd;2023;Nivå 0;2023-03-20 (joosat);Konferensartikel i tidskriftFunder: Eureka-PID Worthtruck (PID, IDI-20171259); European Union’s Research Fund for Coal and Steel (No. 101034036–ToughSteel project)Part of special Issue: Hot Sheet Metal Forming of High Performance MaterialsLicens fullltext: CC BY License

This study presents an innovative approach for selecting high-strength materials for fatigue dimensioning parts, considering both fracture toughness and fatigue performance. Warm and hot forming processes enable the construction of high-strength parts above 1000 MPa with complex geometries, making them suitable for lightweight chassis in automotive and freight applications. This research reveals that high-strength steels can experience up to a 40% reduction in fatigue performance due to manufacturing defects introduced during punching and trimming. Fracture toughness has been proposed as a good indicator of notch sensitivity, with a strong correlation of 0.83 between fracture toughness and fatigue notch sensitivity. Therefore, by combining fracture toughness measurements and fatigue resistance obtained through the rapid fatigue test, it becomes possible to quickly identify the most fatigue-resistant materials to deal with defects. Among the nine materials analysed, warm-formed steels show promising characteristics for lightweight chassis construction, with high fatigue resistance and fracture toughness exceeding the proposed fracture threshold of 250 kJ/m2., Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-08-10 (joosat);Licens fulltext: CC BY License

Press hardened components have become widespread in the automotive industry in structural and crash-resistant applications, thanks to the combination of the complex shapes and high mechanical properties obtained. However, the press hardening of coated boron steel results in severe adhesive-based wear, with tool maintenance being required in as few as 3000 cycles. The current industrial implementation of press hardening is defined to work around this phenomenon. While this aspect has been studied by different authors, most of the literature deals with laboratory-scale tribosimulators, leaving an open question into how this knowledge transfers to macroscopic effects on the industrial process. In this work, wear in press hardening is studied by comparing the results obtained in laboratory conditions with a pilot-scale line, and finally, with wear mechanisms observed on industrial tools. The aim of this study is to consolidate the current knowledge about the micro-mechanisms involved, and to understand to what extent the existing tests reproduce the actual mechanisms observed in the press floor. The results show how material transfer mainly happens as an accumulation of dust compacted into initial defects on the tool surface. Moreover, this mechanism is effectively reproduced in laboratory tribosimulators and pilot environments, showing a similar morphology to wear on industrial tools. The work sheds light on the underlying causes of wear, and its potential mitigation strategies., Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-06-07 (hanlid);Funder: European Commission Research Fund for Coal and Steel (RFCS-CT-2011-00023); Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and University, Retos-Colaboración 2017 Project RTC-2017-6448-4 INNOESTAMP, TestTool

The use of Advanced High Strength Steel (AHSS) allows for lightweighting of sheet steel components, with maintained structural integrity of the part. However, AHSS grades show limitations in edge crack resistance, primarily influenced by sheared edge damage introduced by the shear cutting process. Numerical modelling of the shear cutting process can aid the understanding of the sheared edge damage, thus avoiding unforeseen edge cracking in the subsequent cold forming. However, the extreme deformations of the blank during the shear cutting process are likely to cause numerical instabilities and divergence using conventional Finite Element modelling. To overcome these challenges, this work presents the use of a particle-based numerical modelling method called the Particle Finite Element Method (PFEM). PFEM accurately solves some of the challenges encountered in shear cutting with the standard Finite Element method, such as large deformation, angular distortions, generation of new boundaries and presents an efficient way of transfer historical information from the old to the new mesh, minimising the results diffusion. The present work shows prediction of cut edge morphology of AHSS using a PFEM modelling scheme, where the numerical results are verified against experiments. With these results, the authors show new possibilities to obtain accurate numerical prediction of the shear cutting process, which promotes further advances in prediction of edge damaged related to shear cutting of AHSS., Licens fulltext: CC BY License

This report shows a comprehensive analysis of the comparison of the energy-as-a-service market in Europe and the United States. The objective of this project was to evaluate the profitability and feasibility of implementing a successful energy-as-a-service business model in Europe. The research followed this methodology: identification of research questions, literature review, case study simulations, and result analysis. The results reveal that the energy-as-a-service model is promising for profitability in Europe, specifically some regions are the most interesting for market entry. Thanks to numerous simulations and analysis, Spain was selected as an attractive market due to its strong solar potential, tariff structures, and supportive incentives. The results show the importance of adapting the business model to suit the distinctive characteristics of each market. Being a necessary step to make it possible to compete in the growing demand for sustainable energy solutions across Europe. However, it is essential to acknowledge that the feasibility and profitability of energy-as-a-service projects in Europe are dependent on various factors, including solar irradiance, local tariff structures, incentives, and project costs. The study shows the significance of the constant assessment of these factors to ensure favorable economic outcomes for customers and overall project viability. It is important to note that this research is based on specific assumptions and data sources, and further validation of the findings are necessary through real-world data and ongoing research. Market dynamics, policy changes, and technological advancements can have a substantial influence on the energy-as-a-service sector, necessitating continuous analysis and adaptability. In summary, this report offers insights into the energy-as-a-service markets in Europe and the United States, showing the potential for expansion and growth in Europe. By understanding the distinct attributes of each marke, Denna rapport presenterar en omfattande analys av jämförelsen av energi som en tjänst-marknaden i Europa och Förenta Staterna. Målet med detta projekt var att utvärdera lönsamheten och genomförbarheten av att implementera en framgångsrik affärsmodell för energi som en tjänst i Europa. Forskningen följde denna metodologi: identifiering av forskningsfrågor, litteraturgenomgång, fallstudie-simuleringar och resultatanalys. Resultaten avslöjar att modellen för energi som en tjänst lovar lönsamhet i Europa, specifikt är vissa regioner mest intressanta för marknadspenetration. Tack vare talrika simuleringar och analyser valdes Spanien som en attraktiv marknad på grund av dess starka solpotential, tariffer och stödjande incitament. Resultaten visar vikten av att anpassa affärsmodellen för att passa de karakteristiska egenskaperna hos varje marknad. Det är en nödvändig åtgärd för att möjliggöra konkurrens i den växande efterfrågan på hållbara energilösningar över hela Europa. Det är emellertid väsentligt att erkänna att genomförbarheten och lönsamheten för energi som en tjänst-projekt i Europa är beroende av olika faktorer, inklusive solstrålning, lokala tariffstrukturer, incitament och projekt kostnader. Studien visar vikten av kontinuerlig bedömning av dessa faktorer för att säkerställa fördelaktiga ekonomiska resultat för kunder och övergripande projekt livskraft. Det är viktigt att notera att denna forskning är baserad på specifika antaganden och datakällor, och ytterligare validering av resultaten krävs genom verkliga data och pågående forskning. Marknadens dynamik, policyförändringar och teknologiska framsteg kan ha en betydande påverkan på energi som en tjänst-sektorn och kräver kontinuerlig analys och anpassningsförmåga. Sammanfattningsvis ger denna rapport insikter i energi som en tjänst-marknaderna i Europa och Förenta Staterna och visar potentialen för expansion och tillväxt i Europa. Genom att förstå de distinkta attributen för varje marknad och anpassa sina erbj

High-strength steels are widely used in vehicle body-in-white, offering a good balance between crashworthiness and lightweight design. The increased requirements of heavier electric vehicles, in terms of fatigue resistance and crashworthiness, highlight that chassis parts have remarkable lightweighting potential. However, applying these grades in chassis parts is not straightforward, as the forming processes, like trimming, may introduce surface defects that compromise the fatigue resistance of the component. This work presents a material selection strategy for the applicability of high-strength steels in chassis parts of electric vehicles. The proposed approach allows the evaluation of the key parameters of the chassis parts in a simple way. The crash performance is evaluated through fracture toughness using the essential work of fracture (EWF) methodology. The method is applied to thin high-strength steel sheets employing double-edge notched tensile specimens (DENT). On the other hand, fatigue performance is investigated in terms of fatigue resistance for both notched and unnotched specimens. The results for different complex-phase and dual-phase steels show a good agreement between the EWF and the fatigue notch factor. The method could help apply high-strength steel to chassis parts, as designers will have a tool to focus the expensive fatigue tests on the best material candidates., Funder: Catalan Government - ACCIÓ-Eurecat (Project PRIV - RapidFat)Licens fulltext: CC BY License

The joint between different lightweight materials plays a significant role in multi-material design of structural components for the automotive industry, aiming to reduce the vehicle's weight without compromising performance or safety. Yet, conventional mechanical joining technologies between metals and Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) result in either a hole being drilled in the composite material, leading to damages which reduce the load bearing capacity, or the weight of the part being increased due to the incorporation of fasteners. At the same time, alternative mechanical joining methodologies involve complex and costly processing, hindering their industrial application. This work presents a new, simple, cost-efficient and non-weight penalizing mechanical joining technology between a metal sheet and fibre reinforced polymer prepregs consisting of a single-step punching process. In this process, the metallic sheet is completely perforated, while the prepreg is not. The punch pushes the carbon fibres through the metallic hole, with no, or minimal fibre breakage, generating a mechanical interlock. The shear strength and the absorbed energy of the co-cured joint increase with the incorporation of the mechanical interlocking joint., Licens fulltext: CC BY License

Most solutions for a lightweight design are based on the implementation of AHSS, Al alloys or CFRP. However, not all these strategies are susceptible to be applied to truck chassis parts. These components require high fatigue resistance and thick sheets. Additionally, they are usually trimmed and punched, which is known to affect fatigue resistance. This work addresses the lightweight con-struction of truck parts through the warm forming of steel grades tailored to show high formability and fatigue behaviour. The fatigue limit was evaluated for different edge conditions (polished and punched) and rationalized using the cracking resistance described by fracture toughness. The con-sideration of both mechanical properties, fatigue, and fracture toughness, gives an innovative and useful tool to develop and select materials for fatigue dimensioned parts., Funder: Research Fund for Coal and Steel RFCS (800649);ISBN för värdpublikation: 978-3-95735-150-0, RFCS programme - Warmlight project