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Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading global cause of death, and treatments that further reduce CV risk remain an unmet medical need. Epidemiological studies have consistently identified low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) as an independent risk factor for CVD, making HDL elevation a potential clinical target for improved CVD resolution. Endothelial lipase (EL) is a circulating enzyme that regulates HDL turnover by hydrolyzing HDL phospholipids and driving HDL particle clearance. Using MEDI5884, a first-in-class, EL-neutralizing, monoclonal antibody, we tested the hypothesis that pharmacological inhibition of EL would increase HDL-C by enhancing HDL stability. In nonhuman primates, MEDI5884 treatment resulted in lasting, dose-dependent elevations in HDL-C and circulating phospholipids, confirming the mechanism of EL action. We then showed that a favorable lipoprotein profile of elevated HDL-C and reduced low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) could be achieved by combining MEDI5884 with a PCSK9 inhibitor. Last, when tested in healthy human volunteers, MEDI5884 not only raised HDL-C but also increased HDL particle numbers and average HDL size while enhancing HDL functionality, reinforcing EL neutralization as a viable clinical approach aimed at reducing CV risk.

This paper introduces the AI system that is used as crime prevention system at house or store. This system checks intrusion by detecting the sound of crashing windows. The proposed system consists with a micro controller unit (MCU) and a AI processor. We employ various sounds such as crashing windows, crashing plates, and other sounds that occur in everyday life to verify the proposed system. In order to find the optimized learning model, we employ simulation model of the AI processor and implement the optimal learning model. We tested our proposed system and the result shows accuracy up to 91%.

Summary: Obesity is characterized by adipose tissue inflammation. Because proteoglycans regulate inflammation, here we investigate their role in adipose tissue inflammation in obesity. We find that adipose tissue versican and biglycan increase in obesity. Versican is produced mainly by adipocytes and biglycan by adipose tissue macrophages. Both proteoglycans are also present in adipose tissue from obese human subjects undergoing gastric bypass surgery. Deletion of adipocyte-specific versican or macrophage-specific biglycan in mice reduces macrophage accumulation and chemokine and cytokine expression, although only adipocyte-specific versican deletion leads to sustained improvement in glucose tolerance. Macrophage-derived biglycan activates inflammatory genes in adipocytes. Versican expression increases in cultured adipocytes exposed to excess glucose, and adipocyte-conditioned medium stimulates inflammation in resident peritoneal macrophages, in part because of a versican breakdown product, versikine. These findings provide insights into the role of adipocyte- and macrophage-derived proteoglycans in adipose tissue inflammation in obesity.

Background High-density lipoproteins (HDL) modified by glycation have been reported to be dysfunctional. Little is known regarding the anti-inflammatory effects on adipocytes of glycated HDL. Aims We tested whether modification of HDL in vitro by glycolaldehyde (GAD), malondialdehyde (MDA) or glucose affected HDL's anti-inflammatory properties and ability to promote cholesterol efflux. To determine whether similar changes occur in vivo, we examined modifications of apolipoprotein A1 (APOA1) and APOA2 and anti-inflammatory and cholesterol efflux properties of HDL isolated from subjects with type 1 diabetes in poor glycemic control. Results In vitro modification with both GAD and MDA blunted HDL's ability to inhibit palmitate-induced inflammation and cholesterol efflux in adipocytes. Modification of HDL by glucose had little impact on HDL function, like the response using HDL isolated from subjects with diabetes. Mass spectrophotometric analysis revealed that lysine residues in APOA1 and APOA2 of HDL modified by GAD and MDA in vitro differed from those modified by glucose, which resembled that seen with HDL from patients with type1 diabetes. Conclusions Modification of lysine residues in HDL by GAD and MDA in vitro does not mirror the HDL glycation in vivo in patients with diabetes, but resembles HDL modified in vitro by glucose.

HDL from healthy humans and lean mice inhibits palmitate-induced adipocyte inflammation; however, the effect of the inflammatory state on the functional properties of HDL on adipocytes is unknown. Here, we found that HDL from mice injected with AgNO3 fails to inhibit palmitate-induced inflammation and reduces cholesterol efflux from 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Moreover, HDL isolated from obese mice with moderate inflammation and humans with systemic lupus erythematosus had similar effects. Since serum amyloid A (SAA) concentrations in HDL increase with inflammation, we investigated whether elevated SAA is a causal factor in HDL dysfunction. HDL from AgNO3-injected mice lacking Saa1.1 and Saa2.1 exhibited a partial restoration of antiinflammatory and cholesterol efflux properties in adipocytes. Conversely, incorporation of SAA into HDL preparations reduced antiinflammatory properties but not to the same extent as HDL from AgNO3-injected mice. SAA-enriched HDL colocalized with cell surface–associated extracellular matrix (ECM) of adipocytes, suggesting impaired access to the plasma membrane. Enzymatic digestion of proteoglycans in the ECM restored the ability of SAA-containing HDL to inhibit palmitate-induced inflammation and cholesterol efflux. Collectively, these findings indicate that inflammation results in a loss of the antiinflammatory properties of HDL on adipocytes, which appears to partially result from the SAA component of HDL binding to cell-surface proteoglycans, thereby preventing access of HDL to the plasma membrane.

Adipose tissue inflammation associates with insulin resistance and increased cardiovascular disease risk. We previously observed that 3T3-L1 adipocytes exposed to palmitate become inflamed and demonstrate increased plasma membrane cholesterol and lipid raft content. It is known that palmitate induces translocation of NAPH oxidase and toll-like receptor 4 into lipid rafts, increasing adipocyte inflammation. However, it is unclear (1) how palmitate alters plasma membrane cholesterol content; and (2) whether increased cholesterol content in the plasma membrane is related to adipocyte inflammation induced by palmitate exposure. We hypothesize that mechanisms involved in increasing plasma membrane cholesterol content after palmitate treatment could be related to cholesterol synthesis and/or ER stress, and that increased cholesterol in lipid rafts is essential for induction of inflammation in adipocytes. To test these hypotheses, differentiated murine 3T3-L1 adipocytes were exposed to palmitate for 24 hours, with and without pre-treatment with HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (statins) or HDL. RT-PCR was used to evaluate gene expression of inflammation ( Saa3 , Ccl2 ), ER stress ( Bip , Chop ), and HMG-CoA reductase ( Hmgcr ). Cholera toxin subunit β staining and flow cytometry were used to evaluate plasma membrane lipid raft content. In differentiated adipocytes, palmitate-induced inflammation neither increased expression of ER stress genes nor HMG-CoA reductase gene expression. However, treatment with 3 different statins (simvastatin, lovastatin, atorvastatin) significantly reduced palmitate-induced adipocyte inflammation as indicated by decreased gene expression of Saa3 and Ccl2 ( P P

Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) is a naturally occurring dietary trans fatty acid found in food from ruminant sources. One specific CLA isomer, 10E,12Z-CLA, has been associated with health benefits, such as reduced adiposity, while simultaneously promoting deleterious effects, such as systemic inflammation, insulin resistance, and dyslipidemia. The precise mechanisms by which 10E,12Z-CLA exerts these effects remain unknown. Despite potential health consequences, CLA continues to be advertised as a natural weight loss supplement, warranting further studies on its effects on lipid metabolism. We hypothesized that 10E,12Z-CLA impairs lipid storage in adipose tissue by altering the lipid metabolism of white adipocytes. We demonstrate that 10E,12Z-CLA reduced triglyceride storage due to enhanced fatty acid oxidation and lipolysis, coupled with diminished glucose uptake and utilization in cultured adipocytes. This switch to lipid utilization was accompanied by a potent proinflammatory response, including the generation of cytokines, monocyte chemotactic factors, and mitochondrial superoxide. Disrupting fatty acid oxidation restored glucose utilization and attenuated the inflammatory response to 10E,12Z-CLA, suggesting that fatty acid oxidation is critical in promoting this phenotype. With further investigation into the biochemical pathways involved in adipocyte responses to 10E,12Z-CLA, we can discern more information about its safety and efficacy in promoting weight loss.

Rationale: Macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue associates with insulin resistance and increased cardiovascular disease risk. We previously have shown that generation of reactive oxygen species and monocyte chemotactic factors after exposure of adipocytes to saturated fatty acids, such as palmitate, occurs via translocation of NADPH oxidase 4 into lipid rafts (LRs). The anti-inflammatory effects of apolipoprotein AI (apoAI) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) on macrophages and endothelial cells seem to occur via cholesterol depletion of LRs. However, little is known concerning anti-inflammatory effects of HDL and apoAI on adipocytes. Objective: To determine whether apoAI and HDL inhibit inflammation in adipocytes and adipose tissue, and whether this is dependent on LRs. Methods and Results: In 3T3L-1 adipocytes, apoAI, HDL, and methyl-β-cyclodextrin inhibited chemotactic factor expression. ApoAI and HDL also disrupted LRs, reduced plasma membrane cholesterol content, inhibited NADPH oxidase 4 translocation into LRs, and reduced palmitate-induced reactive oxygen species generation and monocyte chemotactic factor expression. Silencing ATP-binding cassette A-1 abrogated the effect of apoAI, but not HDL, whereas silencing ATP-binding cassette G-1 or scavenger receptor B-1 abrogated the effect of HDL but not apoAI. In vivo, apoAI transgenic mice fed a high-fat, high-sucrose, cholesterol-containing diet showed reduced chemotactic factor and proinflammatory cytokine expression and reduced macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue. Conclusions: ApoAI and HDL have anti-inflammatory effects in adipocytes and adipose tissue similar to their effects in other cell types. These effects are consistent with disruption and removal of cholesterol from LRs, which are regulated by cholesterol transporters, such as ATP-binding cassette A-1, ATP-binding cassette G-1, and scavenger receptor B-1.

Adipose tissue inflammation is associated with insulin resistance and increased cardiovascular disease risk in obesity. We previously showed that addition of cholesterol to a diet rich in saturated fat and refined carbohydrate significantly worsens dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, adipose tissue macrophage accumulation, systemic inflammation, and atherosclerosis in LDL receptor-deficient (Ldlr(-/-)) mice. To test whether inhibition of intestinal cholesterol absorption would improve metabolic abnormalities and adipose tissue inflammation in obesity, we administered ezetimibe, a dietary and endogenous cholesterol absorption inhibitor, to Ldlr(-/-) mice fed chow or high-fat, high-sucrose (HFHS) diets without or with 0.15% cholesterol (HFHS+C). Ezetimibe blunted weight gain and markedly reduced plasma lipids in the HFHS+C group. Ezetimibe had no effect on glucose homeostasis or visceral adipose tissue macrophage gene expression in the HFHS+C fed mice, although circulating inflammatory markers serum amyloid A (SSA) and serum amyloid P (SSP) levels decreased. Nevertheless, ezetimibe treatment led to a striking (85%) reduction in atherosclerotic lesion area with reduced lesion lipid and macrophage content in the HFHS+C group. Thus, in the presence of dietary cholesterol, ezetimibe did not improve adipose tissue inflammation in obese Ldlr(-/-) mice, but it led to a major reduction in atherosclerotic lesions associated with improved plasma lipids and lipoproteins.

Objective— Obesity is associated with insulin resistance, chronic low-grade inflammation, and atherosclerosis. Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) participates in the cross talk between inflammation and insulin resistance, being activated by both lipopolysaccharide and saturated fatty acids. The present study was undertaken to determine whether TLR4 deficiency has a protective role in inflammation, insulin resistance, and atherosclerosis induced by a diabetogenic diet. Methods and Results— TLR4 and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor double knockout mice and LDL receptor–deficient mice were fed either a normal chow or a diabetogenic diet for 24 weeks. TLR4 and LDL receptor double knockout mice fed a diabetogenic diet showed improved plasma cholesterol and triglyceride levels but developed obesity, hyperinsulinemia, and glucose intolerance equivalent to obese LDL receptor–deficient mice. Adipocyte hypertrophy, macrophage accumulation, and local inflammation were not attenuated in intraabdominal adipose tissue in TLR4 and LDL receptor double knockout mice. However, TLR4 deficiency led to markedly decreased atherosclerosis in obese TLR4 and LDL receptor double knockout mice. Compensatory upregulation of TLR2 expression was observed both in obese TLR4-deficient mice and in palmitate-treated TLR4-silenced 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Conclusions— TLR4 deficiency decreases atherosclerosis without affecting obesity-induced inflammation and insulin resistance in LDL receptor–deficient mice. Alternative pathways may be responsible for adipose tissue macrophage infiltration and insulin resistance that occurs in obesity.

Excess glucose and free fatty acids delivered to adipose tissue causes local inflammation, which contributes to insulin resistance. Glucose and palmitate generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) in adipocytes, leading to monocyte chemotactic factor gene expression. Docosahexaenoate (DHA) has the opposite effect. In this study, we evaluated the potential sources of ROS in the presence of excess nutrients. Differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes were exposed to palmitate and DHA (250 μM) in either 5 or 25 mM glucose to evaluate the relative roles of mitochondrial electron transport and NADPH oxidases (NOX) as sources of ROS. Excess glucose and palmitate did not increase mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. However, glucose exposure increased glycolysis. Of the NOX family members, only NOX4 was expressed in adipocytes. Moreover, its activity was increased by excess glucose and palmitate and decreased by DHA. Silencing NOX4 inhibited palmitate- and glucose-stimulated ROS generation and monocyte chemotactic factor gene expression. NADPH, a substrate for NOX, and pentose phosphate pathway activity increased with glucose but not palmitate and decreased with DHA exposure. Inhibition of the pentose phosphate pathway by glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase inhibitors and siRNA suppressed ROS generation and monocyte chemotactic factor gene expression induced by both glucose and palmitate. Finally, both high glucose and palmitate induced NOX4 translocation into lipid rafts, effects that were blocked by DHA. Excess glucose and palmitate generate ROS via NOX4 rather than by mitochondrial oxidation in cultured adipocytes. NOX4 is regulated by both NADPH generated in the PPP and translocation of NOX4 into lipid rafts, leading to expression of monocyte chemotactic factors.

Objective— Obesity is characterized by chronic inflammation of adipose tissue, which contributes to insulin resistance and diabetes. Although nitric oxide (NO) signaling has antiinflammatory effects in the vasculature, whether reduced NO contributes to adipose tissue inflammation is unknown. We sought to determine whether (1) obesity induced by high-fat (HF) diet reduces endothelial nitric oxide signaling in adipose tissue, (2) reduced endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) signaling is sufficient to induce adipose tissue inflammation independent of diet, and (3) increased cGMP signaling can block adipose tissue inflammation induced by HF feeding. Methods and Results— Relative to mice fed a low-fat diet, an HF diet markedly reduced phospho-eNOS and phospho-vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (phospho-VASP), markers of vascular NO signaling. Expression of proinflammatory cytokines was increased in adipose tissue of eNOS−/− mice. Conversely, enhancement of signaling downstream of NO by phosphodiesterase-5 inhibition using sildenafil attenuated HF-induced proinflammatory cytokine expression and the recruitment of macrophages into adipose tissue. Finally, we implicate a role for VASP, a downstream mediator of NO-cGMP signaling in mediating eNOS-induced antiinflammatory effects because VASP−/− mice recapitulated the proinflammatory phenotype displayed by eNOS−/− mice. Conclusion— These results imply a physiological role for endothelial NO to limit obesity-associated inflammation in adipose tissue and hence identify the NO-cGMP-VASP pathway as a potential therapeutic target in the treatment of diabetes.

OBJECTIVE Obesity is associated with monocyte-macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue. Previously, we showed that glucose-stimulated production by adipocytes of serum amyloid A (SAA), monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP)-1, and hyaluronan (HA) facilitated monocyte accumulation. The current objective was to determine how the other major nutrient, free fatty acids (FFAs), affects these molecules and monocyte recruitment by adipocytes. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Differentiated 3T3-L1, Simpson-Golabi-Behmel syndrome adipocytes, and mouse embryonic fibroblasts were exposed to various FFAs (250 μmol/l) in either 5 or 25 mmol/l (high) glucose for evaluation of SAA, MCP-1, and HA regulation in vitro. RESULTS Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) such as laurate, myristate, and palmitate increased cellular triglyceride accumulation, SAA, and MCP-1 expression; generated reactive oxygen species (ROS); and increased nuclear factor (NF) κB translocation in both 5 and 25 mmol/l glucose. Conversely, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) such as arachidonate, eicosapentaenate, and docosahexaenate (DHA) decreased these events. Gene expression could be dissociated from triglyceride accumulation. Although excess glucose increased HA content, SFAs, oleate, and linoleate did not. Antioxidant treatment repressed glucose- and palmitate-stimulated ROS generation and NFκB translocation and decreased SAA and MCP-1 expression and monocyte chemotaxis. Silencing toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) markedly reduced SAA and MCP-1 expression in response to palmitate but not glucose. DHA suppressed NFκB translocation stimulated by both excess glucose and palmitate via a peroxisome prolifterator–activated receptor (PPAR) γ–dependent pathway. CONCLUSIONS Excess glucose and SFAs regulate chemotactic factor expression by a mechanism that involves ROS generation, NFκB, and PPARγ, and which is repressed by PUFAs. Certain SFAs, but not excess glucose, trigger chemotactic factor expression via a TLR4-dependent pathway.

Adipose tissue secretes proteins like serum amyloid A (SAA), which plays important roles in local and systemic inflammation. Circulating SAA levels increase in obese humans, but the roles of adipose-derived SAA and hyperlipidemia in this process are unclear. We took advantage of the difference in the inducible isoforms of SAA secreted by adipose tissue (SAA3) and liver (SAA1 and 2) of mice to evaluate whether adipose tissue contributes to the circulating pool of SAA in obesity and hyperlipidemia. Genetically obese (ob/ob) mice, but not hyperlipidemic mice deficient in apolipoprotein E (Apoe(-/-)), had significantly higher circulating levels of SAA than their littermate controls. SAA1/2 mRNA expression in the liver and SAA3 mRNA expression in intra-abdominal fat were significantly higher in obese than thin mice, but they were not affected by hyperlipidemia in Apoe(-/-) mice. However, only SAA1/2 and the constitutive form of SAA (SAA4) could be detected in the circulation by mass spectrometric analysis of HDL, the major carrier of circulating SAA. In contrast, SAA3 could be detected in medium from cultured adipocytes. Our findings indicate that the expression of SAA3 in adipose tissue is upregulated by obesity, but it does not contribute to the circulating pool of SAA in mice.

Adipose tissue inflammation associates with insulin resistance and increased cardiovascular disease risk. HDL has both anti-inflammatory and atheroprotective properties. We recently showed that HDL from healthy humans and lean mice inhibits palmitate-induced monocyte chemotactic factor expression by decreasing lipid raft (LR) content in adipocytes. However, little is known regarding whether inflammation would cause HDL to lose these anti-inflammatory effects on adipocytes. To generate HDL under conditions of sterile inflammation, HDL was purified from plasma of AgNO 3 -injected C57BL/6 mice. In 3T3L-1 adipocytes, “inflamed HDL” did not disrupt the formation of LR or inhibit monocyte chemotactic factor expression. Moreover, inflamed HDL lost its ability to facilitate cholesterol efflux in adipocytes. To determine causal factors of HDL that might be responsible for this loss of anti-inflammatory effect on adipocytes, we investigated role of serum amyloid A (SAA), levels of which are increased up to 1000 fold in HDL by acute inflammation. In a loss of function study, inflamed HDL from AgNO 3 -injectd SAA1/2 double knockout (DKO) mice restored part of its anti-inflammatory and cholesterol efflux capacity. Conversely, in a gain of function study, increasing the SAA content in uninflamed HDL by exposure to 293 HEK cells with lentiviral overexpression of SAA2 resulted in a partial loss of its anti-inflammatory effect and cholesterol efflux capacity. To determine whether HDL from moderately inflamed humans had similar effects on adipocyte inflammation, HDL isolated from patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (n=18) also demonstrated impaired anti-inflammatory effects in adipocytes. The extent of impairment associated positively with plasma SAA levels ( r =0.80; p r =-0.74; p

Obesity induces adipocyte hypertrophy and accumulation of macrophages in adipose tissue, which associates with insulin resistance and cardiovascular disease risk. HDL and apoA-I have anti-inflammatory properties in addition to facilitating reverse cholesterol transport. We recently showed that HDL from healthy humans and lean mice inhibits palmitate-induced monocyte chemotactic factor expression by decreasing lipid raft (LR) content in adipocytes. We also have shown that adipocytes produced extracellular matrix (ECM) in vivo and in vitro when they became hypertrophic. Moreover, inflamed HDL loses its anti-inflammatory effect and ability to stimulate cholesterol efflux from adipocytes. From gain of function and loss of function experiments, it appears that serum amyloid A (SAA) is partially responsible for these effects. However, the mechanism by which SAA impairs HDL’s anti-inflammatory function is unknown. To generate HDL under conditions of sterile inflammation, HDL was purified from plasma of AgNO 3 -injected C57BL/6 mice. Also, to generate SAA-enriched HDL, HDL was purified after HDL from healthy humans was exposed to 293 HEK cells with lentiviral overexpression of SAA2. Control, inflamed and SAA-enriched HDL were labelled using DiI dye and the ECM of adipocytes was stained by Alexa 488 conjugated wheat germ agglutinin. After exposure of control HDL to adipocytes, there was no co-localization of DiI and Alexa 488 staining. However, we found that inflamed and SAA-enriched HDL were co-localized with the ECM of adipocytes, suggesting that inflamed and SAA-enriched HDL are being trapped at the ECM and therefore are blocked from accessing the plasma membrane. Enzymatic digestion of the ECM restored inflamed and SAA-enriched HDL’s abilities to facilitate cholesterol efflux from adipocytes and to inhibit palmitate-induced chemotactic factor expression. Taken together, our results suggest that the presence of SAA on HDL makes the lipoprotein lose its anti-inflammatory effect on adipocytes by blocking accessibility of HDL to the plasma membrane. The interaction between SAA in HDL and the ECM of adipocytes should be considered as a new therapeutic target for improvement of HDL’s anti-inflammatory properties.

Objective—We previously have shown that lysophosphatidylcholine (lysoPC) regulates proteoglycan synthesis by vascular smooth muscle cells (SMCs). Given the accumulating evidence for reactive oxygen species (ROS) as mediators of a variety of effects of lysoPC, the present study evaluates the potential role of ROS as intermediate molecules in the regulation of proteoglycan synthesis by lysoPC.Methods and Results—LysoPC (10 μmol/L) was found to stimulate rapid and sustained generation of ROS by SMC, as indicated using a fluorescent probe for measuring intracellular oxidants and fluorescence-activated cell sorting. This was not associated with cytotoxicity, as evaluated by fluorescence microscopy using MitoTracker Red or propidium iodide, cell number, cell protein, or lactate dehydrogenase release. Pretreatment with catalase or superoxide dismutase, specific scavengers of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide, respectively, blocked the ability of lysoPC to stimulate both accumulation of ROS and proteoglycan synthesis. Most importantly, these enzymatic antioxidants prevented lysoPC from stimulating the synthesis of proteoglycans with enhanced lipoprotein-binding properties, as quantified by a gel shift binding assay.Conclusions—These findings strongly suggest that ROS are key mediators in the ability of lysoPC to regulate proteoglycan synthesis and that these effects can be inhibited by antioxidants.

Maternally inherited mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) has been suggested to be a genetic factor for diabetes. Reports have shown a decrease of mtDNA content in tissues of diabetic patients. We investigated the effects of mtDNA depletion on glucose metabolism by use of ρ0 SK-Hep1 human hepatoma cells, whose mtDNA was depleted by long-term exposure to ethidium bromide. The ρ0 cells failed to hyperpolarize mitochondrial membrane potential in response to glucose stimulation. Intracellular ATP content, glucose-stimulated ATP production, glucose uptake, steady-state mRNA and protein levels of glucose transporters, and cellular activities of glucose-metabolizing enzymes were decreased in ρ0 cells compared with parental ρ+ cells. Our results suggest that the quantitative reduction of mtDNA may suppress the expression of nuclear DNA-encoded glucose transporters and enzymes of glucose metabolism. Thus this may lead to diabetic status, such as decreased ATP production and glucose utilization.

Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) has been shown to modulate transactivation by the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-gamma and by nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB). In the present study, the oxLDL signalling pathways involved in NF-kappaB transactivation were investigated by utilizing a reporter construct driven by three upstream NF-kappaB binding sites, and various pharmacological inhibitors. OxLDL and its constituent lysophophatidylcholine (lysoPC) induced a rapid and transient increase in intracellular calcium and stimulated NF-kappaB transactivation in resting RAW264.7 macrophage cells in an oxidation-dependent manner. NF-kappaB activation by oxLDL or lysoPC was inhibited by inhibitors of protein kinase C or by a chelator of intracellular calcium. Tyrosine kinase or phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase inhibitors did not block NF-kappaB transactivation. Furthermore, oxLDL-induced NF-kappaB activity was abolished by PPAR-gamma ligands. When the endocytosis of oxLDL was blocked by cytochalasin B, NF-kappaB transactivation by oxLDL was synergistically increased, while PPAR transactivation was blocked. These results suggest that oxLDL activates NF-kappaB in resting macrophages via protein kinase C- and/or calcium-dependent pathways, and that this does not involve the endocytic processing of oxLDL. The endocytosis-dependent activation of PPAR-gamma by oxLDL may function as a route of inactivation of the oxLDL-induced NF-kappaB signal.

Oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) induces a wide range of cellular responses to produce atherosclerotic lesion, but key factors determining the response are not understood. In this study, purified LDL was oxidized with copper sulfate, and its physical properties and the related biological responses were investigated. The average hydrodynamic diameter of the lightly oxidized LDL was approximately 25 nm and its Rf value relative to nLDL on agarose gel was between 1.0 and 1.25. The diameter of the extensively oxidized LDL was over 30 nm, the Rf value was over 2.0. A 24 h-exposure of resting RAW264.7 macrophage cells to 100 microg/ml of the lightly oxidized LDL induced proliferation and macrophage activation whereas the extensively oxidized LDL induced cell death at the same concentration. In contrast, 200 microg/ml of oxLDL caused cell death regardless of oxidation degree. Short incubation (4-6 h) of the highly oxidized LDL (100 microg/ml) also resulted in cell proliferation. OxLDL-induced cell death showed mixed characteristics of apoptosis and/or necrosis depending on the strength and duration of the insult. These results suggest that cellular responses induced by oxLDL be dependent on the oxidation degree, the duration of exposure, and the concentration of oxLDL.

Chronic inflammation in vascular disease affects the organization of the extracellular matrix (ECM) in such a way as to promote the events associated with atherosclerosis and restenosis. Versican and hyaluronan are two ECM components that are affected by inflammation and, in turn, affect the inflammatory response. Inflammatory growth factors such as TGF-β1 and PDGF stimulate the production of versican and hyaluronan by arterial smooth muscle cells (ASMCs). These ECM components accumulate in vascular disease and promote the proliferation and migration of ASMCs, contributing to intimal hyperplasia. Hyaluronan also serves as attachment ligand for inflammatory cells and may be partly responsible for leukocyte retention as part of the early inflammatory response. Inflammation also leads to destruction of the ECM and failure of the ECM to remodel. Elastic fibers are absent in atherosclerotic and restenotic lesions and controlled expression of a versican variant, V3, in ASMCs restores the ability of these cells to form elastic fibers. ECM assembly is critical to vascular healing and the prevention of vascular disease.

Objective— Chronic systemic inflammation accompanies obesity and predicts development of cardiovascular disease. Dietary cholesterol has been shown to increase inflammation and atherosclerosis in LDL receptor–deficient (LDLR −/− ) mice. This study was undertaken to determine whether dietary cholesterol and obesity have additive effects on inflammation and atherosclerosis. Methods and Results— LDLR −/− mice were fed chow, high-fat, high-carbohydrate (diabetogenic) diets without (DD) or with added cholesterol (DDC) for 24 weeks. Effects on adipose tissue, inflammatory markers, and atherosclerosis were studied. Despite similar weight gain between DD and DDC groups, addition of dietary cholesterol increased insulin resistance relative to DD. Adipocyte hypertrophy, macrophage accumulation, and local inflammation were observed in intraabdominal adipose tissue in DD and DDC, but were significantly higher in the DDC group. Circulating levels of the inflammatory protein serum amyloid A (SAA) were 4.4-fold higher in DD animals and 15-fold higher in DDC animals than controls, suggesting chronic systemic inflammation. Hepatic SAA mRNA levels were similarly elevated. Atherosclerosis was increased in the DD-fed animals and further increased in the DDC group. Conclusions— Obesity-induced macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue is exacerbated by dietary cholesterol. These local inflammatory changes in adipose tissue are associated with insulin resistance, systemic inflammation, and increased atherosclerosis in this mouse model.

Obesity is characterized by adipocyte hypertrophy and macrophage accumulation in adipose tissue. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) plays a role in macrophage recruitment into adipose tissue. However, other adipocyte-derived factors, e.g., hyaluronan and serum amyloid A (SAA), can facilitate monocyte adhesion and chemotaxis, respectively. The objective was to test the potential involvement of these factors in macrophage recruitment. Differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes made hypertrophic by growth in high glucose conditions were used to study SAA and hyaluronan regulation in vitro. Two mouse models of obesity were used to study their expression in vivo. Nuclear factor-κB was upregulated and peroxisome proliferator–activated receptor (PPAR)γ was downregulated in hypertrophic 3T3-L1 cells, with increased expression of SAA3 and increased hyaluronan production. Rosiglitazone, a PPARγ agonist, reversed these changes. Hypertrophic adipocytes demonstrated overexpression of SAA3 and hyaluronan synthase 2 in vitro and in vivo in diet-induced and genetic obesity. SAA and hyaluronan existed as part of a complex matrix that increased the adhesion and retention of monocytes. This complex, purified by binding to a biotinylated hyaluronan binding protein affinity column, also showed monocyte chemotactic activity, which was dependent on the presence of SAA3 and hyaluronan but independent of MCP-1. We hypothesize that adipocyte hypertrophy leads to increased production of SAA and hyaluronan, which act in concert to recruit and retain monocytes, thereby leading to local inflammation in adipose tissue.

Objectives— During inflammation, the serum amyloid A (SAA) content of HDL increases, whereas apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) and paraoxonase-1 (PON-1) decrease. It remains unclear whether SAA physically displaces apoA-I or if these changes derive from coordinated but inverse transcriptional regulation of the HDL apolipoprotein genes. Because cytokines stimulate the hepatic expression of inflammatory markers, we investigated their role in regulating SAA, apoA-I, and PON-1 expression. Methods and Results— A cytokine mixture (tumor necrosis factor [TNF]-α, interleukin [IL]-1β, and IL-6) simultaneously induced SAA and repressed apoA-I and PON-1 expression levels. These effects were partially inhibited in cells pretreated with either nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) inhibitors (pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, SN50, and overexpression of super-repressor inhibitor κB) or after exposure to the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPARα) ligands (WY-14643 and fenofibrate). Consistent with these findings, the basal level of SAA was increased, whereas apoA-I and PON-1 decreased in primary hepatocytes from PPARα-deficient mice as compared with wild-type mice. Moreover, neither WY-14643 nor fenofibrate had any effect on SAA, apoA-I, or PON-1 expression in the absence of PPARα. Conclusion— These results suggest that cytokines increase the expression of SAA through NF-κB transactivation, while simultaneously decreasing the expression of apoA-I and PON-1 by inhibiting PPARα activation. Inflammation may convert HDL de novo into a more proatherogenic form by coordinate but inverse transcriptional regulation in the liver, rather than by physical displacement of apoA-I by SAA.

Small heterodimer partner (SHP), specifically expressed in liver and a limited number of other tissues, is an unusual orphan nuclear receptor that lacks the conventional DNA binding domain. In this work, we found that SHP expression is abundant in murine macrophage cell line RAW 264.7 but was suppressed by oxidized low density lipoprotein (oxLDL) and its constituent 13-hydroxyoctadecadienoic acid, a ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma. Furthermore, SHP acted as a transcription coactivator of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF kappa B) and was essential for the previously described NF kappa B transactivation by palmitoyl lysophosphatidylcholine, one of the oxLDL constituents. Accordingly NF kappa B, which was transcriptionally active in the beginning, became progressively inert in oxLDL-treated RAW 264.7 cells as oxLDL decreased the SHP expression. Thus, SHP appears to be an important modulatory component to regulate the transcriptional activities of NF kappa B in oxLDL-treated, resting macrophage cells.

Objectives: A healthy, intact coronary artery endothelium is important because most common coronary artery diseases result from loss of endothelial integrity. In this study, we explored the biological significance of the angiopoietin–Tie2 system in porcine coronary artery. Methods: Cultured porcine coronary artery endothelial cells and explanted coronary arteries were used. Results: Immunohistochemical analyses indicated that Ang1 is selectively expressed in vascular muscular cells, whereas angiopoietin-2 (Ang2) and Tie2 are selectively expressed in endothelial cells. Accordingly, Ang1 mRNA is mainly expressed in cultured porcine coronary artery vascular smooth muscle cells, whereas Ang2 and Tie2 mRNAs are mainly expressed in cultured porcine coronary artery endothelial cells (PCAECs). Ang1 (200 ng/ml) induced Tie2 phosphorylation, while Ang2 (200 ng/ml) did not produce Tie2 phosphorylation. Ang1 increased the survival of cultured PCAECs during apoptosis induced by oxidized low-density lipoprotein (OxLDL). This survival effect was does-dependent and PI. Furthermore, Ang1 also protected endothelial cells of explanted coronary artery against OxLDL-induced apoptosis artery. Conclusion: These results suggest that adult coronary artery contains Ang1–Tie2 components that enhance endothelial cell survival to help maintain the normal integrity of the coronary artery endothelium.