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The complete mitochondrial genome of the Parotis chlorochroalis was sequenced, revaeling a length of 15239 bp with 37 genes and an A + T-rich region. All c13 PCGs begin with typical ATN codons, except COI gene, which starts with CGA. Eleven genes terminate with TAA, two with T–. All 22 tRNA genes exhibit typical cloverleaf structure except for trnS1 P. chlorochroalis has two relatively conserved intergenic regions and two relatively conserved overlapping regions. Phylogenetic analysis support P. chlorochroalis belongs to subfamily Spilomelinae, the topologies of Crambidae are highly congruent with previous studies. This newly sequences mitochondrial genome provides valuable resources for taxonomic inference and evolutionary studies of genus Parotis.

A new species of bumble bee-mimicking brood parasitic bee, Tetralonioidella mimetica Orr & Zhu, sp. nov., is described from China. The systematic placement of this species was initially challenging but was resolved using a combination of phylogenomic and COI barcode analyses, which strongly support the new species as a member of the genus Tetralonioidella Strand. Interestingly, the new species mimics the color pattern of both a bumble bee (Bombus Latreille), and its host Habropoda Smith species, a mimicry format previously unknown for bees. A review of the other Tetralonioidella species revealed three additional bee mimics, including two further likely model-host-brood parasite mimicry complexes. To our knowledge, these represent the first documented three-tiered mimetic systems in bees. Several additional taxonomic actions recently became necessary in these and related taxa: Tetralonioidella meghalayensis Dohling & Dey, 2024 is synonymized syn. nov. with Habropoda radoszkowskii (Dalla Torre, 1896) and Varthemapistra Engel, stat. rev. is again synonymized with Habrophorula Lieftinck. Our results also highlight issues with the generic classification of the tribe Melectini as currently used, as Melecta Latreille was found paraphyletic in relation to the remaining melectine genera. As a first step toward resolving this issue, we return the Melecta subgenus Eupavlovskia Popov, stat. rev. to genus level and discuss the ongoing systematic uncertainties regarding melectine taxonomy.

Abstract Background The field of bee genomics has considerably advanced in recent years, however, the most diverse group of honey producers on the planet, the stingless bees, are still largely neglected. In fact, only eleven of the ~ 600 described stingless bee species have been sequenced, and only three using a long-read (LR) sequencing technology. Here, we sequenced the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes of the most common, widespread and broadly reared stingless bee in Brazil and other neotropical countries—Tetragonisca angustula (popularly known in Brazil as jataí). Results A total of 48.01 Gb of DNA data were generated, including 2.31 Gb of Pacific Bioscience HiFi reads and 45.70 Gb of Illumina short reads (SRs). Our preferred assembly comprised 683 contigs encompassing 284.49 Mb, 62.84 Mb of which (22.09%) corresponded to 445,793 repetitive elements. N50, L50 and complete BUSCOs reached 1.02 Mb, 91 contigs and 97.1%, respectively. We predicted that the genome of T. angustula comprises 17,459 protein-coding genes and 4,108 non-coding RNAs. The mitogenome consisted of 17,410 bp, and all 37 genes were found to be on the positive strand, an unusual feature among bees. A phylogenomic analysis of 26 hymenopteran species revealed that six odorant receptor orthogroups of T. angustula were found to be experiencing rapid evolution, four of them undergoing significant contractions. Conclusions Here, we provided the first nuclear and mitochondrial genome assemblies for the ecologically and economically important T. angustula, the fourth stingless bee species to be sequenced with LR technology thus far. We demonstrated that even relatively small amounts of LR data in combination with sufficient SR data can yield high-quality genome assemblies for bees.

Abstract As an important forestry pest, Coronaproctus castanopsis (Monophlebidae) has caused serious damage to the globally valuable Gutianshan ecosystem, China. In this study, we assembled the first chromosome-level genome of the female specimen of C. castanopsis by merging BGI reads, HiFi long reads and Hi-C data. The assembled genome size is 700.81 Mb, with a scaffold N50 size of 273.84 Mb and a contig N50 size of 12.37 Mb. Hi-C scaffolding assigned 98.32% (689.03 Mb) of C. Castanopsis genome to three chromosomes. The BUSCO analysis (n = 1,367) showed a completeness of 91.2%, comprising 89.2% of single-copy BUSCOs and 2.0% of multicopy BUSCOs. The mapping ratio of BGI, second-generation RNA, third-generation RNA and HiFi reads are 97.84%, 96.15%, 97.96%, and 99.33%, respectively. We also identified 64.97% (455.3 Mb) repetitive elements, 1,373 non-coding RNAs and 10,542 protein-coding genes. This study assembled a high-quality genome of C. castanopsis, which accumulated valuable molecular data for scale insects.

The choice of trap in entomological surveys affects the composition of captured insects, though previous comparative studies have been limited in the types of composition measured, and the effects of environmental context. We assessed the sampling bias of several traps commonly used in pollinator monitoring: blue, yellow, and white pan traps, and blue vane traps, towards different taxonomic and functional groups and their efficiency in measuring taxonomic, phylogenetic, and functional diversity. Analyses were performed in monoculture and mixed forests to understand the environmental context of trap efficiency. We found that blue pan traps generally outperformed other types in bee capture and exhibited a preference for Halictidae bees. Blue pan traps yielded the highest species richness and phylogenetic diversity, while blue vane traps captured the highest functional richness. Bias differences were frequently detected in mixed forests compared with monoculture forests. We also found the combination of blue vane and pan traps consistently correlated highest with a complete survey among two-method combinations. Based on our findings, we recommend a combination of blue vane and pan traps to obtain a more comprehensive bee collection in an efficient manner. Additionally, it is crucial to consider habitat type when designing bee trapping protocols to ensure an accurate representation of bee communities.

Tree species richness, forest structure, and seasonal fluctuations between rainy and dry seasons can strongly affect trophic interactions in forest ecosystems, but the inter- and scale dependence of these variables remains unclear. Using artificial caterpillars (~18,000 replicates), we analyzed predation pressure by arthropods, birds, and rodents along a tree species richness gradient across seasons in a subtropical tree diversity experiment (BEF-China). The aim of the study was to test if forest structure, in addition to tree species richness, has an effect on predation pressure and to further specify which structural variables are important in driving predation. We assessed the effects of tree species richness and forest structure at the plot and local neighborhood levels. We also included fine-scale placement covariates, plot size, and topographical covariates of the study site. Forest structure and tree species richness independently and interactively affected predation pressure. The spatial scale was an important determinant for tree species richness and structural effects, extending from within plot scales to the overall heterogeneity of the plots’ surrounding environment. For example, the effect of branch density in the local neighborhood depended on both surrounding tree species richness and plot-level vegetation density. Similarly, visibility-enhancing factors increased attacks by arthropods (lack of branches in close surroundings) and by birds (open area), depending on the surrounding vegetation. A comparison of structural measures showed that predation pressure can be addressed in much greater detail with multiple specific structural features than with overall forest complexity. Seasonal change also affected predation pressure, with foliage being a stronger attractant in spring, but also by presumable topography-driven study plot differences in sun exposure and humidity between rainy and dry seasons. Our study demonstrates that predation pressure is not simply a function of tree species richness or structure but is shaped by the interplay of structural elements, spatial scale, and seasonal dynamics along gradients of tree species richness and forest structure. The structural and seasonal effects are important to take into account when addressing how current and future biodiversity loss may change top‐down control of herbivory and overall ecosystem functioning.

Morphometrics has established itself as one of the most powerful tools for species delimitation, particularly for morphologically-conserved groups of insects. An interesting example is the parasitoid Encyrtus sasakii Ishii (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Encyrtidae), which was recently subdivided into three cryptic species that are seemingly well-delimited with the available DNA data but nearly indistinguishable morphologically. Here, we performed linear morphometric analyses of the antenna as well as shape analyses of the ovipositor and hypopygium (the last two are key structures associated with host location and selection) to shed further light on the taxonomic status of the E. sasakii complex. Principal component analyses were carried out to visualize the amount and direction of shape variation in the ovipositor and hypopygium. Complementarily, we constructed phylogenetic trees using a Bayesian approach based on two markers (28S and COI). We found statistically-significant differences in the relative size of the funicle and of the two proximal claval antennomeres among the three species. Our analyses also indicated that the outer plates of the ovipositor show remarkable allometric changes and that both the stylus and shield of the ovipositor are relatively well conserved among species. We nonetheless found consistent interspecific differences in the shape of the 2nd outer plate of the ovipositor and hypopygium. Also, both our COI and combined trees recovered three strongly-supported major clades, each corresponding to one of the three cryptic species. We discuss that changes in the shape of the ovipositor may have played an important role in host shift and speciation within the E. sasakii complex. Even though the recent descriptions of both E. eulecaniumiae Wang & Zhang, 2016 and E. rhodococcusiae Wang & Zhang, 2016 appear not to fully satisfy the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature, a simple resolution for the sake of taxonomic stability is proposed herein.

Two Chinese species of the genus Lipotriches Gerstaecker, 1858 are treated in this paper. Lipotriches (Lipotriches) guihongi Zhang & Niu, sp. nov. is recognized as a new species and Lipotriches (Maynenomia) nanensis (Cockerell, 1929) is a new species and subgenus record for China. The number of Chinese species of the subfamily Nomiinae and genus Lipotriches are updated to 47 and 15, respectively.

Mourecotelles Toro & Cabezas (Hymenoptera, Apidae, Colletinae) currently includes only nine valid species of cellophane bees found mostly in relatively-dry regions of western South America (Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, and Ecuador). In this paper, we describe and illustrate a new species of the genus – M. braziliensis Ferrari & Melo, sp. nov. – based on individuals of both sexes captured through trap-nesting in an environmental protection area (Araucárias Municipal Natural Park) and in flowers in different localities in southern Brazil. In total, we obtained 16 nests of M. braziliensis, each consisting of two to eleven brood cells arranged horizontally and lined with a cellophane-like substance. Of the 57 adult bees that emerged, 41 were male (mean weight 46.5 mg) and 16 were female (mean weight 58.9 mg), resulting in biased sex and investment ratios of 2.56:1 and 2.02:1, respectively. Both the numbers of provisioned cells and mortality rate were higher for trap nests with the narrowest bore diameter, although the differences in relation to other trap nests were not statistically significant. Pollen of nine different plant families were found in brood cells of M. braziliensis, but the species showed a clear preference for Fabaceae and Polygalaceae. Indeed, some of the specimens were collected while foraging in flowers of an unidentified species of Monnina Ruiz & Pav. (Polygalaceae) growing in swampy areas. The evolutionary and biogeographical implications of our discovery are briefly discussed.

Insects are key pollinators to ecosystem function, but much work remains to determine the most cost-effective, reliable scheme to monitor them. Pan traps (PT) and flight interception traps (FIT) are two of the most popular insect sampling methods used. However, their relative sampling performance and cost is poorly known for agroecosystems in China. We conducted a study across 18 oilseed rape fields in smallholder farmland in Zhejiang, China using these two traps. Our results showed that a single FIT had a greater sampling efficiency (more individuals and higher species richness) than a single PT, but controlling for cost, four PTs (the cost for four PTs is close to one FIT) showed a greater sampling efficiency than FITs. PTs collected more small-bodied individuals while FITs and PTs did not significantly differ in terms of monitoring pollinator insects with large body size. When exploring whether semi-natural habitat embedded in the agricultural landscape affected these results, results from both trap types shows that semi-natural habitat had a significant positive impact on wild pollinator diversity and rarefied species richness. Future studies that examine the effects of agricultural landscape on the wild pollinator community should combine PTs with netting or other active methods for long-term wild pollinator monitoring strategies.

Diglyphus species are ecologically and economically important on agromyzid leafminers. In 2018, a thelytokous species, Diglyphus wani Liu, Zhu & Yefremova, was firstly reported and described. Subsequently, the arrhenotokous D. wani were discovered in Yunnan and Guizhou Provinces of China. We compared the morphological characteristics of thelytokous and arrhenotokous strains. However, the females of two strains had a strongly similar morphology and showed subtle differences in fore- and hind-wings. The difference was that forewing of arrhenotokous female was with denser setae overall, showing that costal cell with 2 ~ 4 rows of setae on dorsal surface and the setae of basal cell with 15 ~ 21 hairs and forewing of thelytokous female was with two rows of setae on dorsal surface and basal cell with 10 ~ 15 hairs generally. The setation beneath the marginal vein of the hind-wing of arrhenotokous female is denser than the same area of thelytokous female. To explore the genetic divergence between thelytokous and arrhenotokous strains of D. wani, the mitochondrial and nuclear gene were applied and sequenced. The polygenic analyses revealed that two strains can be distinguished by COI, ITS1 and ITS2. The mean sequence divergence between the two strains was 0.052, 0.010 and 0.007, respectively. Nevertheless, the 28S gene was unfeasible due to its containing a sharing haplotype between different strains. The two strains of D. wani are dominant parasitoids against agromyzid leafminers and such effective discernible foundation provides future in-depth studies on biological characteristics, along with insight into field application of two strains of D. wani.

Abstract Herbivorous insects acquire microorganisms from host plants or soil, but it remains unclear how the diversity and functional composition of host plants contribute to structuring herbivore microbiomes. Within a controlled tree diversity setting, we used DNA metabarcoding of 16S rRNA to assess the contribution of Lepidoptera species and their local environment (particularly, tree diversity, host tree species, and leaf traits) to the composition of associated bacterial communities. In total, we obtained 7,909 bacterial OTUs from 634 caterpillar individuals comprising 146 species. Tree diversity was found to drive the diversity of caterpillar‐associated bacteria both directly and indirectly via effects on caterpillar communities, and tree diversity was a stronger predictor of bacterial diversity than diversity of caterpillars. Leaf toughness and dry matter content were important traits of the host plant determining bacterial species composition, while leaf calcium and potassium concentration influenced bacterial richness. Our study reveals previously unknown linkages between trees and their characteristics, herbivore insects, and their associated microbes, which contributes to developing a more nuanced understanding of functional dependencies between herbivores and their environment, and has implications for the consequences of plant diversity loss for trophic interactions.

Continuing prior studies on Chinese Sphecodes, we here report further records of twelve rarely collected and little known species from mountainous regions of Southern and South-Western China (Xizang, Sichuan, Yunnan). Forty two species are currently known from China, yet until now only two species were known from Southern and South-Western China. We report six entirely new records for China, including Sphecodes discoverlifei Astafurova & Proshchalykin, 2020, S. fumipennis Smith, 1853, S. montanus Smith, 1879, S. nipponicus Yasumatsu & Hirashima, 1951, S. simlaensis Blüthgen, 1924, and S. turneri Cockerell, 1916, and another four are new regional records. Two are new species that we describe and illustrate: Sphecodes holgeri Astafurova & Proshchalykin, sp. nov. (Yunnan), and S. tibeticus Astafurova & Niu, sp. nov. (Xizang). The male of Sphecodes sikkimensis Blüthgen, 1927 is described for the first time.

Oomyzus spiraculus Song, Fei & Cao sp. nov. (Hymenoptera, Eulophidae) is described and illustrated as a gregarious larval-pupal endoparasitoid of Coccinella septempunctata L. (Coleoptera, Coccinellidae). Differentiation between O. spiraculus and its similar species is discussed and a key to differentiate the female and male of these species is provided. DNA barcodes of O. spiraculus and O. scaposus are analyzed and compared.

The complete mitochondrial genome of the Metaphycus eriococci (Timberlake, 1916) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) was obtained via next-generation sequencing. This mitochondrial genome is 15,749 bp in length with 37 classical eukaryotic mitochondrial genes and an A + T-rich region. All the 13 PCGs begin with typical ATN codons. Among them, 12 PCG genes terminate with TAA, only one with TAG. All of the 22 tRNA genes, ranging from 58 to 72 bp with typical cloverleaf structure except for trnS1 and trnE, whose dihydrouridine arm forms a simple loop. A dramatic gene rearrangement with a large inversion of six protein-coding genes (nad3-cox3-atp6-atp8-cox2-cox1) also found in M. eriococci. Phylogenetic analysis highly supported the monophyly of Pteromalidae, Eupelmidae, and Encyrtidae are sister groups. Within Encyrtidae, Metaphycus eriococci and Aenasius arizonensis are close to each other.

The fairyfly Mymaridae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea) are widely distributed worldwide, but species of this family have rarely been collected and recorded from the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. In this study, mymarids collected in Tibet, China, are identified based on morphology and molecular data. Two species of the genus Pseudanaphes Noyes & Valentine are treated and illustrated here, including a known species, P. zhaoi Lin, and a new species, P. yadongicus Aishan & Cao sp. nov. In addition, a key to the world species of Pseudanaphes (females) and DNA barcodes for P. yadongicus and P. zhaoi are provided.

Nutritional content of host plants is expected to drive caterpillar species assemblages and their trait composition. These relationships are altered by tree richness-induced neighborhood variation and a seasonal decline in leaf quality. We tested how key functional traits related to the growth and defenses of the average caterpillar hosted by a tree species are shaped by nutritional host quality. We measured morphological traits and estimated plant community-level diet breadth based on occurrences from 1020 caterpillars representing 146 species in a subtropical tree diversity experiment from spring to autumn in one year. We focused on interspecific caterpillar trait variation by analyzing presence-only patterns of caterpillar species for each tree species. Our results show that tree richness positively affected caterpillar species-sharing among tree species, which resulted in lowered trait variation and led to higher caterpillar richness for each tree species. However, community-level diet breadth depended more on the nutritional content of host trees. Higher nutritional quality also supported species-poorer but more abundant communities of smaller and less well-defended caterpillars. This study demonstrates that the leaf nutritional quality of trees shapes caterpillar trait composition across diverse species assemblages at fine spatial scales in a way that can be predicted by ecological theory.

Abstract Aim We construct a framework for mapping pattern and drivers of insect diversity at the continental scale and use it to test whether and which environmental gradients drive insect beta diversity. Location Global; North and Central America; Western Europe. Time period 21st century. Major taxa studied Insects. Methods An informatics system was developed to integrate terrestrial data on insects with environmental parameters. We mined repositories of data for distribution, climatic data were retrieved (WorldClim), and vegetation parameters inferred from remote sensing analysis (MODIS Vegetation Continuous Fields). Beta diversity between sites was calculated and then modeled with two methods, Mantel test with multiple regression and generalized dissimilarity modeling. Results Geographic distance was the main driver of insect beta diversity. Independent of geographic distance, bioclimate variables explained more variance in dissimilarity than vegetation variables, although the particular variables found to be significant were more consistent in the latter, particularly, tree cover. Tree cover gradients drove compositional dissimilarity at denser coverages, in both continental case studies. For climate, gradients in temperature parameters were significant in driving beta diversity more so than gradients in precipitation parameters. Main conclusions Although environmental gradients drive insect beta diversity independently of geography, the relative contribution of different climatic and vegetational parameters is not expected to be consistent in different study systems. With further incorporation of additional temporal information and variables, this approach will enable the development of a predictive framework for conserving insect biodiversity at the global scale.

Abstract International agreements aim to conserve 17% of Earth's land area by 2020 but include no area‐based conservation targets within the working landscapes that support human needs through farming, ranching, and forestry. Through a review of country‐level legislation, we found that just 38% of countries have minimum area requirements for conserving native habitats within working landscapes. We argue for increasing native habitats to at least 20% of working landscape area where it is below this minimum. Such target has benefits for food security, nature's contributions to people, and the connectivity and effectiveness of protected area networks in biomes in which protected areas are underrepresented. We also argue for maintaining native habitat at higher levels where it currently exceeds the 20% minimum, and performed a literature review that shows that even more than 50% native habitat restoration is needed in particular landscapes. The post‐2020 Global Biodiversity Framework is an opportune moment to include a minimum habitat restoration target for working landscapes that contributes to, but does not compete with, initiatives for expanding protected areas, the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021–2030) and the UN Sustainable Development Goals.

Fruit flies in the family Tephritidae are well known as economically important pests of edible fruits and can often cause serious damage and losses to both agriculture and the economy. One of the common parasitoids of fruit flies, Aceratoneuromyia indica (Silvestri), has been used in biological programs. However, the biocontrol utilities of parasitoids are impeded by the difficulties of proper identification. Species of the genus Aceratoneuromyia Girault (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), usually developed as parasitoids of fruit flies, are studied here. Trjapitzinichus Kostjukov and Kosheleva is proposed as a new synonym under Aceratoneuromyia. Three new species of Aceratoneuromyia, A. bilinis Huangfu and Cao sp. nov., A. carinata Cao and Zhu sp. nov., and A. trilinus Cao and Zhu sp. nov., are described and illustrated from China. Aceratoneuromyia indica is also treated here with diagnosis and illustrations. DNA barcodes of A. bilinis and A. indica and a key to the world species of Aceratoneuromyia are provided. This study provided important identification information of parasitoids with morphology and molecular evidence, which is useful for imperative needs regarding the identity of parasitoids attacking fruit flies.

One individual referable to Calliopiidae G.O. Sars, 1893 was collected from a chemically reduced habitat, the hydrothermal vent systems in Okinawa Trough, and was identified as a new genus and species belonging to this family after a morphological examination. A formal description of this new species and a discussion of the relationship of the new genus within Calliopiidae are presented.

The available information about the cleptoparastic bees of the genus Sphecodes in the Palaearctic part of China is summarized. Twenty-four species are currently known from this area including 16 newly recorded. Based on type specimens, new synonymies have been proposed for Sphecodes cristatus Hagens, 1882 = S. alfkeni Meyer, 1922, syn. n.; S. longulus Hagens, 1882 = S. subfasciatus Blüthgen, 1934, syn. n.; S. nippon Meyer, 1922 = S. kansuensis Blüthgen, 1934, syn. n.; Sphecodes pieli Cockerell, 1931 = S. orientalis Astafurova & Proshchalykin, 2014, syn. n. Lectotypes are designated for Sphecodes alfkeni Meyer, 1922 and S. pellucidus niveipennis Meyer, 1925. Illustrated keys to males and females of all species known from Palaearctic China and an updated checklist of the 33 Chinese species of Sphecodes are provided.

Abstract Host specificity of parasitoids may be measured by various specialization indices to assess the variation of interaction strength among species and the structure of the wider interaction network. However, the conclusions from analyses at the species and network levels may differ, which remains poorly explored. In addition, the recovery of cryptic species of hosts and parasitoids with molecular data may affect the structure of inferred interaction links. We quantified host specificity of hymenopteran parasitoids (family Encyrtidae) on armored scale insects (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) from a wide geographic sampling range across the Chinese Mainland based on both morphological and molecular species delimitation. Mitochondrial COI and nuclear 28S markers detected high cryptic species diversity in the encyrtids and to a lesser degree in the diaspidids, which divided generalist morphospecies into complexes of specialists and generalists. One‐to‐one reciprocal host–parasite links were increased in the molecular data set, but different quantitative species‐level indices produced contrasting estimates of specificity from various one‐to‐multiple and multiple‐to‐multiple host–parasite links. Network indices calculated from DNA‐based species, compared to morphology‐based species definitions, showed lower connectance and generality, but greater specialization and compartmentalization of the interaction network. We conclude that a high degree of cryptic species in host–parasitoid systems refines the true network structure and may cause us overestimating the stability of these interaction webs.

Biodiversity change can impact ecosystem functioning, though this is primarily studied at lower trophic levels. Here, Schuldt et al. find that biodiversity components other than tree species richness are particularly important, and higher trophic level diversity plays a role in multifunctionality.

The mitochondrial genome of the Platencyrtus parkeri Feriere (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) was obtained via next-generation sequencing. The assembled mitogenome is 13,393 bp in length, which contains 33 classical eukaryotic mitochondrial genes with three tRNA genes and rrnS gene missing. All the 13 PCGs begin with typical ATN codons. The 19 detected tRNAs range from 58 to 70 bp in length with typical cloverleaf structure except for trnS1, whose dihydrouridine (DHU) arm forms a simple loop. Meanwhile, they have six tRNAs inserted between nad2 and nad3 compared with Encyrtus infelix. Phylogenetic analysis highly supported the monophyly of Pteromalidae. Eupelmidae and Encyrtidae have a close relationship. Within Encyrtidae, Platencyrtus parkeri Feriere and Encyrtus infelix are close to each other.

The complete mitochondrial genome of the Cerceris quinquefasciata (Rossi, 1792) (Hymenoptera: Crabronidae) was obtained via next-generation sequencing. This mitochondrial genome is 16,188 bp in length with 37 classical eukaryotic mitochondrial genes and two A + T-rich region. All the 13 PCGs begin with typical ATN codons. Among them, eleven PCG genes terminate with TAA, two with T–. All of the 22 tRNA genes, ranging from 58 to 72 bp with typical cloverleaf structure except for trnS1, whose dihydrouridine (DHU) arm forms a simple loop. Phylogenetic analysis highly supported Crabronidae is the sister group of anthophila bees.

The complete mitochondrial genome of the Cerceris bucculata (A. Costa, 1860) (Hymenoptera: Crabronidae) was obtained via next-generation sequencing. This mitochondrial genome is 16178 bp in length with 37 classical eukaryotic mitochondrial genes and an A + T-rich region. All the 13 PCGs begin with typical ATN codons. Among them, eleven PCG genes terminate with TAA, two with T––. All of the 22 tRNA genes, ranging from 58 to 72 bp with typical cloverleaf structure except for trnS1, whose dihydrouridine (DHU) arm forms a simple loop. Phylogenetic analysis highly supported Crabronidae shown as sister group of anthophila bees.

The cotton mealybug Phenacoccus solenopsis Tinsley (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae), is an emerging invasive insect pest in China. Hymenopteran parasitoids are the key organisms for suppressing populations of P. solenopsis in the field, and therefore could be used as biological agents. Accurate identification of the associated parasitoids is the critical step to assess their potential role in biological control. In this study, we facilitated the identification of the parasitoid composition of P. solenopsis using an integrated approach of species delimitation, combining morphology with molecular data. Eighteen Hymenoptera parasitoid species belonging to 11 genera of four families are recognized based on morphological examination and molecular species delimitation of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase 1 (COI) gene and the 28S rDNA using the automatic barcode gap discovery (ABGD) and the Bayesian Poisson tree processes model (bPTP). Among these species, eight species are primary parasitoids with Aenasius arizonensis (Girault) (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) being the dominant taxon, while the other 10 species are probably hyperparasitoids, with a prevalence of Cheiloneurus nankingensis Li & Xu (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae). These results indicate that parasitoid wasps associated with P. solenopsis from China are diverse and the integrated taxonomic approach applied in this study could enhance the accurate identification of these parasitoids that should be assessed in future biological control programs.

The new species Zagrammosoma dulanense Cao & Zhu, sp. n., from Qinghai Province, China, is described and illustrated. All type specimens were reared from the pupae of Micrurapteryx sophorivora Kuznetzov & Tristan (Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae), a leafmining moth attacking the plant Thermopsis lanceolata R. Br. (Fabaceae). A key to the three known Asian species of Zagrammosoma is provided. All specimens are deposited in the Insect Collection, the Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.

Four species and one subspecies of the genus Monema Walker, 1855 are recognized from China, in which M. tanaognatha Wu & Pan sp. n. is described as new, M. coralina Dudgeon, 1895 and M. meyi Solovyev & Witt, 2009 are newly recorded for China. The female of M. meyi is reported for the first time. Monema nigrans de Joannis, 1901 and M. melli Hering, 1931 are synonymized with M. flavescens Walker, 1855. Cnidocampa rubriceps Matsumura, 1931 is regarded here as a subspecies of Monema flavescens Walker, 1855. The photographs of moths and their genitalia are given. A key to the species of the genus is provided.

Hymenoptera show a great variation in reproductive potential and nesting behavior, from thousands of eggs in sawflies to just a dozen in nest-provisioning wasps. Reduction in reproductive potential in evolutionary derived Hymenoptera is often facilitated by advanced behavioral mechanisms and nesting strategies. Here we describe a surprising nesting behavior that was previously unknown in the entire animal kingdom: the use of a vestibular cell filled with dead ants in a new spider wasp (Hymenoptera: Pompilidae) species collected with trap nests in South-East China. We scientifically describe the 'Bone-house Wasp' as Deuteragenia ossarium sp. nov., named after graveyard bone-houses or ossuaries. We show that D. ossarium nests are less vulnerable to natural enemies than nests of other sympatric trap-nesting wasps, suggesting an effective nest protection strategy, most likely by utilizing chemical cues emanating from the dead ants.

Mitogenomes can provide information for phylogenetic analyses and evolutionary biology. The complete mitochondrial genome of Amata emma (Lepidoptera: Erebidae) was sequenced and analyzed in the study. The circular genome is 15,463 bp in size, with the gene content, orientation and order identical to other ditrysian insects. The genome composition of the major strand shows highly A+T biased and exhibits negative AT-skew and GC-skew. The initial codons are the canonical putative start codons ATN with the exception of cox1 gene which uses CGA instead. Ten genes share complete termination codons TAA, and three genes use incomplete stop codons TA or T. Additionally, the codon distribution and Relative Synonymous Codon Usage of the 13 PCGs in the A. emma mitogenome are consistent with those in other Noctuid mitogenomes. All tRNA genes have typical cloverleaf secondary structures, except for the trnS1 (AGN) gene, in which the dihydrouridine (DHU) arm is simplified down to a loop. The secondary structures of two rRNA genes broadly conform with the models proposed for these genes of other Lepidopteran insects. Except for the A+T-rich region, there are three major intergenic spacers, spanning at least 10 bp and five overlapping regions. There are obvious differences in the A+T-rich region between A. emma and other Lepidopteran insects reported previously except that the A+T-rich region contains an 'ATAGA' -like motif followed by a 19 bp poly-T stretch and a (AT)9 element preceded by the 'ATTTA' motif. It neither has a poly-A (in the α strand) upstream trnM nor potential stem-loop structures and just has some simple structures like (AT)nGTAT. The phylogenetic relationships based on nucleotide sequences of 13 PCGs using Bayesian inference and maximum likelihood methods provided a well-supported a broader outline of Lepidoptera and which agree with the traditional morphological classification and recently working, but with a much higher support.

Tachinid flies are natural enemies of many lepidopteran and coleopteran pests of forests, crops, and fruit trees. In order to address the lack of genetic data in this economically important group, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome of the Palaearctic tachinid fly Elodia flavipalpis Aldrich, 1933. Usually found in Northern China and Japan, this species is one of the primary natural enemies of the leaf-roller moths (Tortricidae), which are major pests of various fruit trees. The 14,932-bp mitochondrial genome was typical of Diptera, with 13 protein-coding genes, 22 tRNA genes, and 2 rRNA genes. However, its control region is only 105 bp in length, which is the shortest found so far in flies. In order to estimate dipteran evolutionary relationships, we conducted a phylogenetic analysis of 58 mitochondrial genomes from 23 families. Maximum-likelihood and Bayesian methods supported the monophyly of both Tachinidae and superfamily Oestroidea. Within the subsection Calyptratae, Muscidae was inferred as the sister group to Oestroidea. Within Oestroidea, Calliphoridae and Sarcophagidae formed a sister clade to Oestridae and Tachinidae. Using a Bayesian relaxed clock calibrated with fossil data, we estimated that Tachinidae originated in the middle Eocene.

Integrated taxonomy uses evidence from a number of different character types to delimit species and other natural groupings. While this approach has been advocated recently, and should be of particular utility in the case of diminutive insect parasitoids, there are relatively few examples of its application in these taxa. Here, we use an integrated framework to delimit independent lineages in Encyrtus sasakii (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Encyrtidae), a parasitoid morphospecies previously considered a host generalist. Sequence variation at the DNA barcode (cytochrome c oxidase I, COI) and nuclear 28S rDNA loci were compared to morphometric recordings and mating compatibility tests, among samples of this species complex collected from its four scale insect hosts, covering a broad geographic range of northern and central China. Our results reveal that Encyrtus sasakii comprises three lineages that, while sharing a similar morphology, are highly divergent at the molecular level. At the barcode locus, the median K2P molecular distance between individuals from three primary populations was found to be 11.3%, well outside the divergence usually observed between Chalcidoidea conspecifics (0.5%). Corroborative evidence that the genetic lineages represent independent species was found from mating tests, where compatibility was observed only within populations, and morphometric analysis, which found that despite apparent morphological homogeneity, populations clustered according to forewing shape. The independent lineages defined by the integrated analysis correspond to the three scale insect hosts, suggesting the presence of host specific cryptic species. The finding of hidden host specificity in this species complex demonstrates the critical role that DNA barcoding will increasingly play in revealing hidden biodiversity in taxa that present difficulties for traditional taxonomic approaches.

Unlike distinct species, closely related species offer a great challenge for phylogeny reconstruction and species identification with DNA barcoding due to their often overlapping genetic variation. We tested a sibling species group of pine moth pests in China with a standard cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene and two alternative internal transcribed spacer (ITS) genes (ITS1 and ITS2). Five different phylogenetic/DNA barcoding analysis methods (Maximum likelihood (ML)/Neighbor-joining (NJ), "best close match" (BCM), Minimum distance (MD), and BP-based method (BP)), representing commonly used methodology (tree-based and non-tree based) in the field, were applied to both single-gene and multiple-gene analyses. Our results demonstrated clear reciprocal species monophyly for three relatively distant related species, Dendrolimus superans, D. houi, D. kikuchii, as recovered by both single and multiple genes while the phylogenetic relationship of three closely related species, D. punctatus, D. tabulaeformis, D. spectabilis, could not be resolved with the traditional tree-building methods. Additionally, we find the standard COI barcode outperforms two nuclear ITS genes, whatever the methods used. On average, the COI barcode achieved a success rate of 94.10-97.40%, while ITS1 and ITS2 obtained a success rate of 64.70-81.60%, indicating ITS genes are less suitable for species identification in this case. We propose the use of an overall success rate of species identification that takes both sequencing success and assignation success into account, since species identification success rates with multiple-gene barcoding system were generally overestimated, especially by tree-based methods, where only successfully sequenced DNA sequences were used to construct a phylogenetic tree. Non-tree based methods, such as MD, BCM, and BP approaches, presented advantages over tree-based methods by reporting the overall success rates with statistical significance. In addition, our results indicate that the most closely related species D. punctatus, D. tabulaeformis, and D. spectabilis, may be still in the process of incomplete lineage sorting, with occasional hybridizations occurring among them.