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Recreational activities are uniquely suited for the implementation of a positive youth development (PYD) approach, as they create space for youths’ physical, psychological, and social development. This may be especially true for vulnerable youth who face additional risk factors such as single parent homes and living in low-income communities. Momentum Bicycle Clubs (MBC), based in Greenville, South Carolina, use noncompetitive recreational bicycling as a mechanism to facilitate group mentoring opportunities for high-risk youth. MBC engage youth with their community while providing opportunities for leadership, building positive relationships, exercise, and learning new skills. This exploratory project’s purpose is to better understand the bicycle as a PYD mechanism through group mentoring by studying MBC program design, processes, and outcomes. Researchers identified three primary themes that indicated the bicycle provided youth opportunities to gain responsibility, confidence, and improved health. Sub themes provided additional context. For example, youth gained responsibility for their bikes and related equipment, as well as their individual and the group’s safety. MBC is an example of using individual specialized recreation equipment as an effective PYD mechanism that allows the program to meet more PYD desired outcomes than traditional programs. The bicycle rides differentiate the program dynamic from other PYD programs as the mentors are also group participants. This allows the mentors to share in the experience and role model behavior, which may foster stronger group identity and cohesiveness. Year-round asset intensive programs of this nature have management challenges, including sufficient resources (e.g., bicycle storage and maintenance), mentors willing to ride bicycles, as well as ensuring youth safety while riding. The resource challenges are met through extensive partnerships with government, nonprofit, and commercial agencies, which has also benefitted the program through a wider variety of mentors, adult role models, internship opportunities for the youth, and community knowledge about MBC. Safe bicycling is accomplished through extensive training, locating the clubs in areas with access to low traffic streets, and a 20-mile paved multiuse path. Lastly, since it is difficult to have meaningful conversations while riding, mentors must build in time before and after rides and at planned stops to facilitate the most meaningful mentor-mentee relationships.

In this study, we adopted the extended unified theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT2) to examine the key determinants of leisure use of a bicycle-share program (BSP), using data from a...

A community that depends on passenger vehicles powered by fossil fuels may have a variety of environmental and societal problems. Previous research has suggested that active transportation helps to...

The transportation sector, the largest contributor to global warming, is responsible for around 75% of the tourism industry’s total CO2 emissions. Accordingly, encouragement of eco-friendly travel behavior has come to the fore as a key tourism-industry responsibility. One promising alternative transportation option, bicycle-share programs (BSPs), have developed rapidly over the past two decades, but studies of non-commuter BSP use have been limited. Moreover, the small body of BSP research that does exist has mostly applied social-cognitive models to explore individuals’ rational decision-making processes, while largely ignoring the influences of emotional and intuitive factors. This study utilized Single Target Implicit Association Tests to bridge this gap by examining the influences of individuals’ dual attitudes toward leisure use of BSPs. The results suggest that the research participants generally have favorable implicit attitudes toward both leisure-time cycling and leisure cyclists. Overall, this study points to a potentially fruitful new direction for future work.

The dramatic loss of open space in the USA over the last 50 years has led to increased conservation efforts by public, private, and non-profit entities. Amongst private landowners, conservation easements, or conditions written into a property’s title that permanently limit how it may be used, are a popular form of land protection. Private land protection is vital for both the conservation of America’s characteristic open spaces, and to ensure the future of many threatened and endangered plant and animal species. Yet little is known about the people who are placing conservation easements on their properties, the landscape features and land use practices currently being protected under conservation easements, or the ways in which these conservation patterns will continue into the future. Regardless, private land conservation efforts are shaping the American landscape; therefore, a thorough understanding of their characteristics is needed. Given that nostalgia, or an idealized and simplified notion of the past, underlies many of the motivations private landowners have for protecting their properties, this study suggests that there is a link between the type of nostalgia motivating private land protection and the types of land and land use practices being conserved. Further, the authors contend that this phenomenon is worthy of further investigation given its potential for environmental, social, and economic impact.

This exploratory project investigated the understudied topic of destination ambassador programs, specifically their efforts to increase tourist satisfaction by training local stakeholders for positive, informative interactions with tourists. Twenty-seven USA destination ambassador program representatives from 21 states were interviewed by phone to discuss their program's purpose, structure, value, and challenges. Seven themes emerged that help explain the ambassador programs: 1) organizations that created and administered destination ambassador programs, 2) purpose and content delivered, 3) program delivery, 4) funding, 5) benefits, 6) challenges, and 7) desired changes. Beneficial outcomes included: 1) increased or better customer service, 2) increased awareness of both the importance of tourism as an industry and local attractions, and 3) strengthened relationships between local tourism stakeholders. The various ambassador types are explained, leading to defining a destination ambassador program. Stakeholder, social exchange, and community attachment theories are theoretical underpinnings of this study as they help explain the tourist-local resident relationships. These findings can be used by practitioners and researchers, as this is one of a few articles on destination ambassador programs and the most holistic one of which the authors are aware. Practitioners can compare their programs to the findings to see how they equate, generate program ideas, and help determine if creating a program is an option for their destination. Researchers can use the results as baseline data for additional destination ambassador studies.

Clearly understanding the connections among land use, demographics, and sensitivity and engagement with natural areas can provide insight into landowner decision making. Pertinent findings from our mailed survey of landowners in Brown County, Indiana, include that (1) individuals already engaged in land conservation or environmental activities are most likely to consider a conservation easement (CE), (2) hunters and anglers are less likely to have interest in CEs, and (3) few differences exist between seasonal and permanent residents. Among other things, this research highlights the significance for landowner willingness to grant a CE of involving landowners in conservation activities and environmental organizations.

Coastal tourism projects are promoted in the Dominican Republic as national-level economic development initiatives that will create jobs for local residents, subsequently benefiting the households in these communities. However, the economic benefits of tourism can be severely weakened as a result of the neoliberal economic policies that guide such projects. Like other economically developing countries—particularly small island nations—the Dominican Republic embraced neoliberal policies that have ultimately reshaped the country’s economic, political, cultural, and physical landscape. As a result, transnational companies, foreign investors, and large-scale enclave tourism projects are the dominant form of tourism development in the Dominican Republic. Though companies’ revenue and profit data are not available for analysis of economic leakage, households can be investigated to understand the level of economic benefits obtained by residents of the local communities. Toward this end, 360 household surveys were collected to examine household income and material assets across 12 coastal communities in three regions of the Dominican Republic. Because of the noted differences in previous development literature, gender of the head of households and whether the household was dependent on income from tourism employment were compared across these measures after adjusting for regional differences. Results indicate that the gender of the head of the household and tourism dependency positively predicted household income, while only gender of the head of the household predicted material assets.

In the United States, the amount of land protected by conservation easements dramatically increased between 2000 and 2010. As this mechanism for private land conservation continues to draw the attention of scientists, professionals, and policy makers, more information is needed on the landowner motivations and the variables affecting the placement of conservation easements. We surveyed landowners in the Midwest who had placed conservation easements on their properties in order to explore how nine various motive-values and exogenous variables, such as land characteristics and demographics, affected the decision to place conservation easements. The results suggested that those receiving monetary benefits from their land indicated were less likely to adopt a conservation easement without the accompanying financial incentives and did not share the same level of environmental motives as those receiving predominantly non-monetary benefits. In addition, absentee landowners appear less affected by financial incentives than those with permanent residences on or adjacent to the protected properties. Overall, our findings demonstrate the variation in motive-values of those receiving monetary vs. non-monetary benefits from their land, as well as highlight the differences in absentee vs. permanent landowners.

The purpose of this study is to explore the ways in which the employment of women in the tourism industry has challenged or reinforced the traditional machismo–marianismo gender ideology in the Dominican Republic. Semi-structured individual, coupled, and group interviews were conducted in 12 coastal communities to investigate residents’ perceptions about gender ideology as it intersects with the employment of women in tourism. The findings reveal tourism employment as a source of opportunity, with women gaining economic and social independence, but also conflict as women and men negotiate new gender roles and identities. Emphasizing issues such as the double workload, negotiating domestic tasks with partners, and tension resulting from employment, this study illuminates the pressing practical needs of Dominican women.

Local residents play an important role in the process of sustainable development in tourism. Resident support for tourism development contributes to the health of tourism industry and successful community development. Therefore, it is in the best interest of local residents, the tourism industry, and tourists, that residents have a positive outlook on and positive experiences with tourism development. In order to understand resident support for tourism development from tourism impacts and community quality of life perspective within the rural communities of Orange County, Indiana, USA, this study has examined a proposed structural model which incorporates eight latent variables: (a) six types of positive and negative tourism impacts serve as exogenous latent variables; (b) tourism-related community quality of life (TCQOL) is proposed as the mediating variable; and (c) resident support for tourism development is the ultimate dependent variable. The results show that both sociocultural and environmental benefits contribute to the host community’s living experience. Economic and sociocultural benefits, negative sociocultural and environmental impacts, and TCQOL influence resident support for tourism development. This study identified specific tourism impacts that affect TCQOL and resident support for local tourism development. This study affirms that community quality of life (QOL) serves an effective predictor of support for tourism development.

One of major purposes of tourism development in a destination is to improve the quality of life (QOL) of host community. This study aims to assess tourism-related community quality of life (TCQOL). The study applied Sirgy and Cornell’s community QOL model (2001) and modified the measuring approach incorporating resident perceptions of satisfaction, importance, and tourism effects (Andereck and Nyaupane 2010) to evaluate resident perceptions of community quality of life in the context of tourism development. The assessment incorporating the community quality of life model and the modified measuring approach that could be a useful tool for tourism practitioners and scholars to understand resident perceptions of community QOL, assess changes of resident perceived community QOL in a host community, and compare the community QOL experiences to other areas.

Introduction and Literature ReviewThe United States is currently experiencing a boom in the alternative food movement that is marked by an increased demand for direct agricultural markets providing organic and sustainably raised/grown foods (Martinez et al., 2010). Scholars point to the dissatisfaction with inequities inherent in the current large-scale industrial food system as the catalyst to this growth (DeLind, 2006). Local foods consumers, however, cite a host of reasons, including the desire to know where their food comes from, supporting the local economy, decreasing their environmental impacts, and increased community and recreational opportunities. (Farmer, Chancellor, Gooding, Shubowitz, & Bryant, 2011). Critics of our large-scale agricultural system further highlight the fact that our primary food supply is driven by a multinational corporate framework that homogenizes food options (Gillespie et al" 2007), decreases trust in the food system (Wentholt et al., 2009), and relies on environmentally unsustainable practices (Seyfang, 2006), all the while depopulating the rural landscape and decimating communities throughout the hinterland (Lobao & Meyer, 2001).Embedded within the alternative local food movement are two main venues: farmers' markets and community supported agriculture (CSA). Farmers' markets are a historic venue for acquiring fresh, local foods from a variety of farmers/growers, while in most areas, CSAs have only recently entered the local food scene (Robinson & Hartenfeld, 2007). In practice, farmers' markets maintain a regular schedule at a specific venue, and the general public is encouraged to visit and shop. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) (2012a), a CSA is a community-farm program in which individuals dedicate support to a farm in exchange for an allotment of the farm's bounty, while also assuming the risks and other benefits associated with the farm. In contrast, CSAs are operated by farmers who sell "shares" to community members, with the shareholders receiving a portion of the farm's bounty at predetermined intervals. Between the years 1994-2012, U.S. farmers' markets increased in total numbers by more than 450%, growing from 1,755 to 7,864 markets (USDA, 2012b). Alternatively, CSA programs went from only two in the United States in the mid-1980s to more than 12,000, according to the most recently published USDA (2012b) records.Most all agriculture, especially food, is consumptive in nature, and Cook (2006) suggests that consumption has long been connected to leisure, especially when considered holistically. The selection, preparation, and consumption of food is considered a leisure-oriented social activity that strengthens families, friendships, and perpetuates traditions. Johnson (2012) suggests that farmers' market consumers make purchases based on internally compelling forces that are indicative of a leisure experience and furthermore the decisions help to build and expand community.Likely the first publication in the recreation and leisure literature that linked local foods with the discipline is Amsden and McEntee's (2011) framework of agrileisure. According to the authors, agrileisure emerges, "from the intersection of agriculture, recreation and leisure, and social change, binding both the supply and demand sides of farm-based recreation and tourism through processes of economic diversification, community development and environmental and ecological sustainability" (p. 38). A major distinction between agrileisure and agritourism is that most farmers' market and CSA participants are not tourists, rather, they are engaged community members with a keen interest in food, agriculture, community development, and/or the social experience.Increasingly, research in recreation and leisure is emerging that links the discipline with the vibrant and expanding slow and local foods movements. Farmer et al. (2011) found that recreation was a key element to the farmers' market experience, even trumping food. …

The Sustainable Tourism Attitude Scale (SUS-TAS) has been widely recognized as a promising instrument for evaluating tourism sustainability. Scholars have successfully validated this scale across contexts. This study carries forward the fruitful outcomes of previous SUS-TAS studies by exploring some possible facilitations of the SUS-TAS application efficiency and scope. Using data from 11 Midwestern U.S. counties, this study (1) found a maximally parsimonious 20-item SUS-TAS that facilitates data collection efficiency without compromising the psychometrical properties, (2) verified SUS-TAS’s predictive validity as in predicting residents’ intention to engage in tourism planning at different levels, and (3) suggested that SUS-TAS is best interpreted by seven separate dimensions rather than a global factor. The extended applications and possible further refinements for the scale are also discussed.

Community involvement in tourism development is a subject that has attracted the attention of tourism researchers largely due to the potentially unfair power distribution between residents and powerful interest groups. This attention, however, has not produced significant literature regarding the possibly varied levels of involvement in tourism planning and development preferred by different residents. The present study addresses that lack of information by exploring the range of residents' preferred involvement approaches based on their demographic and perceptual profiles. Study findings should help all residents with different involvement needs being fairly represented in community engagement. Extending Tosun's typology of community involvement with new content about involvement scope, this study identifies four types of involvement preferences: (1) involving all residents in decision-making; (2) involving some residents in decision-making; (3) excluding residents from decision-making; and (4) excluding...

Multiuse trail development has experienced rapid growth in the United States and many other countries. These trails are said to benefit local residents and stimulate economies, and in some cases are they are tourist attractions. Previous research explained many aspects of user dynamics and how trails benefit a community in general, but literature on the residents and property owners adjacent to trails is limited. However, this group is potentially affected more than other residents by trail development due to their proximity to the trail. Therefore, this exploratory case study focused on the benefits and concerns of those living and owning property adjacent to a trail. Many benefits commonly reported by general trail users were experienced by this study’s sample; however, the additional benefits of convenience and access, scenic views, and an enhanced social life were also revealed. While numerous benefits were uncovered, few concerns were voiced and often very individualistic. Differences in benefits and concerns were noted between respondents when characteristics such as trail use, land use, and time of ownership were evaluated. Findings provide constructive information for trail planners, managers, land developers, residential real estate professionals, and urban/rural-focused researchers.

Environmental degradation and dwindling natural areas can negatively impact a destination's image. Nonprofit land trusts have become important organizations in the US conservation movement and elsewhere. Their method of negotiating with landowners to protect land, yet leave the land in private ownership and on the tax rolls, is often popular with the public and local governments. This study explains how land trusts operate. It measured the collaboration potential between land trusts and tourism entities in the US, from the land trust representatives’ point of view, by embedding six propositions considered necessary for collaboration into the theory of planned behavior. An email survey of land trusts in the US yielded 279 usable replies. Approximately 71% of the representatives’ intention to collaborate was accounted for, with opinions of peers (subjective norm) providing the most influence; 64% of the representatives’ attitude toward collaboration was identified. Land trusts were found to be able and will...

The purpose of this study was to examine the theoretical concept of mental accounting to determine if festival visitors' budgeting practices influence expenditures. The exploratory findings from this study suggest that visitors' budgeting practices play a role in their festival expenditures. results revealed that participants did not plan to spend more money at the festival than what they budget to spend on leisure activities in a typical weekend. This study also explored respondents' perspectives of other possible factors that influence their festival expenditures. Several new factors emerged, such as festival prices, supporting community organizations, product quality, and need. recom men da tions are provided for further research.

The purpose of the study was to understand what motivated people with mobility impairments to travel frequently. Two focus groups were conducted and results were analyzed in light of Crompton’s (1979) push/pull conceptual framework exploring pleasure travel motivation. Results showed that although travelers with acquired mobility impairments shared many similar motives with travelers not identified as having mobility impairments, they also had unique motivations including “Independence”, “The Desire of Being in a Natural Environment”, “Adventure/Risk”, “Do It Today”, and “Accessibility.” Findings and limitations of the study are discussed and implications of the results are suggested.

This study examined the significant life experiences (SLE) of individuals who had placed conservation easements on private property. Specifically, this study explored how early life experiences may impact one's conservation ethic to effect decisions on land protection. The researchers utilized a sequential embedded mixed methods research design, relying on both qualitative and quantitative data in order to develop an understanding of the phenomenon. All participants for this study were individuals who had placed a conservation easement on her or his property in Indiana. The mixed method analysis indicates that individual and informal experiences in and about the outdoors had the greatest perceived impact and were significantly different than more formalized experiences among the study's participants. The discussion focuses on the impact of informal experiences in the outdoors and the impact on the self-perceived development of conservation ethics as significant life experiences pertaining to con...

In dark tourism research there is a paucity of research given to the discussion of sites associated with African enslavement. This study is informed by combining qualitative data from interviews that were conducted with 14 individuals pre- and post-travel to Cape Coast Castle, Ghana, alongside elicited photographs from the site, and a narrative analysis on other visitations and reflections of coastal castles. In bringing the discussion of these sites into an overall conceptual discussion of dark tourism, careful consideration needs to be given to the nuances that is evident in the sites’ histories, the interactions and interpretations of tourists with those sites, and their management and oversight by the Ghanaian authorities and the UNESCO Slave Route Project.

This study explores current and potential collaboration efforts between land trusts (LTs) and tourism entities in the USA. LTs and tourism entities have convergent needs and goals regarding natural resource protection, possibly making them suitable partners. Sustainable tourism development needs natural resource protection; land trusts have proved economically viable and effective methods for protecting natural areas. While some case studies have described collaboration efforts by selected LTs and tourism entities, this mixed methods exploratory study is based upon survey data from 279 local and regional LTs operating across the USA. The study is grounded in both the Primary Environmental Care (PEC) conceptual model and Jafari's Background Tourism Elements concept, providing clarity on current and potential collaboration efforts between LTs and tourism entities. The survey showed that tourism-related characteristics, especially scenic qualities, were acceptable to land trusts, and that tourism was the mos...

The use of conservation easements as a conservation mechanism for private land has increased greatly in the past decade; conservation easements now protect over 15 million ha across the United States from residential and commercial development. We used a mailed survey and in-depth telephone interviews to determine factors that motivate private landowners in Iowa, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio, and Wisconsin (U.S.A.) to place conservation easements on their properties. The mailed survey asked about characteristics of landowners, their properties, and their opinions on 9 factors related to the decision to place an easement. A follow-up telephone interview was completed with 19 mail-survey participants to gain an in-depth understanding of the action and to triangulate the results with the questionnaire. Place attachment, which is a measure of personal connection to a location or property, was the greatest motivation for implementation of an easement. Results of a principal components analysis suggested contributing to the public good underlaid several of the strong motivational factors for participation. Financial reasons were the lowest ranked motivational factor; however, financial concerns may facilitate placement of an easement that would otherwise not be realized. We believe that our results may be transferable to places where land protected by easements is not dominated by traditional farming (row crops, pastures, and hay), timber harvesting, or nonextractive uses (e.g., habitat for wild animals, recreation, and protection of ecosystem services). Resumen: El uso de contratos de conservacion como mecanismo para tierras privadas ha incrementado mucho en la ultima decada; contratos de conservacion ahora protegen del desarrollo residencial y comercial a mas de 15 millones de ha en los Estados Unidos. Utilizamos una encuesta enviada por correo y entrevistas por telefono para determinar los factores que motivan a los propietarios privados en Iowa, Illinois, Michigan, Ohio y Wisconsin (E. U. A.) a colocar contratos de conservacion en sus propiedades. La encuesta por correo preguntaba sobre las caracteristicas de propietarios, sus propiedades y sus opiniones sobre 9 factores relacionados con la decision de colocar un contrato. Se realizo una entrevista por telefono con 19 participantes en la encuesta por correo para obtener un vision mas integral de la accion y triangular los resultados con los del cuestionario. La adhesion al sitio, que es una medida de la conexion personal a una localidad o propiedad, fue la mayor motivacion para la implementacion de un contrato, Los resultados de un analisis de componentes principales sugirio que la contribucion a un bien publico subyacio en varios de los factores motivacionales de la participacion. Las razones financieras fueron el factor motivacional mas bajo; sin embargo, las preocupaciones economicas pueden facilitar la celebracion de un contrato que de otra manera no se realizaria. Consideramos que nuestros resultados pueden ser transferidos a lugares donde la tierra protegida por contratos no esta dominada por la agricultura tradicional (cultivos, pastizales y paja), explotacion maderera o usos no extractivos (e.g., habitat para animales silvestres, recreacion y proteccion de los servicios del ecosistema).

This study examined landowners' motivations for placing conservation easements on personal property. A mixed method sequential embedded research framework was utilized to elucidate the motivations of greatest consequence for landowners adopting conservation easements throughout Indiana. Specifically, the researchers sampled owners of agricultural and forestland who have adopted conservation easements. The qualitative results indicate that the motivation to limit development stems from witnessing the development of land, environmental ethics and values, personal history associated with the place, and the need for farmland for the public good. The quantitative results suggest that environmental values were the primary motivation for conservation easement adoption, with uniqueness of place being ranked second. Discussions of the study's results are presented with implications for the land conservation and conservation behavior fields. Finally, future directions for research within the phenomena of ...

Tourism impacts studies have identified three major types of positive-negative tourism impacts that dynamically change residents’ life experiences and their evaluation of tourism development. This study examines three specific impacts, perceived social costs, environmental sustainability, and perceived economic benefit, to determine their effects on resident perceived quality of life. The results indicate that the social cost dimension has no significant effect on resident quality of life, however both environmental sustainability and perceived economic benefit dimensions significantly affect resident quality of life.

Tourism has increasingly become a preferred option for rural economic development. Like other economic opportunities, the purpose is to improve community viability and residents' quality of life. However, the impacts from tourism are sometimes negative and may lead to a decreased quality of life for residents. This empirical study investigates residents' quality of life using the core–periphery (CP) model. Periphery respondents reported a statistically higher overall quality of life, which is at odds with other research. Significant differences in quality of life scores and subsequent indicators highlight the usefulness of the CP model towards understanding tourism impacts to a rural destination. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

This project examined the Sustainable Tourism Attitude Scale (SUS-TAS), which measures residents’ attitudes toward sustainable tourism. This study has two major purposes: (1) to reassess reliability and construct validity of the 44-item SUS-TAS using confirmatory factor analysis and (2) to identify a shorter version of the SUS-TAS that would not compromise the scale’s psychometric properties. To accomplish these purposes, an empirical study was conducted in rural Orange County, Indiana. Findings support a seven-dimension SUS-TAS model using 27 items that maintained construct validity and internal consistency.

The purpose of this study was to examine the impacts of a downtown festival’s attributes (programs, amenities and entertainment quality) on visitors’ overall experience, their levels of satisfaction and intentions to return. A theoretical model depicting the relationships among festival attributes, experience quality, overall satisfaction and revisit intention was examined using path analysis. The fi nal model suggests entertainment quality of the festival had the strongest impact on visitors’ overall experience at the festival, their satisfaction and intentions to return. All three festival attribute categories studied had direct impacts on visitors’ overall experience, but only entertainment quality directly contributed to visitor satisfaction and re-visit intention. Implications and limitations of the study were also discussed.

Travel pattern data collected from a rural county in western North Carolina, United States, was analyzed using a geographic information system. Travel pattern data are valuable to destination marketers as it highlights potential regional promotions and development partners. Geographic information systems (GIS) can easily display in map form spatially oriented concepts such as travel patterns and provides easy viewing of the data. The generated maps provided a clear indication of regions, counties, and towns that tourism promoters in the rural county may consider as potential marketing and development collaborators. Additionally, by modeling trip distances per travel pattern, potential new markets were identified.

The increasing use of fees by public leisure service providers has the potential to deprive lower income users of their ability to freely choose specific leisure settings and experiences supported by these settings. It has been suggested that the theory of psychological reactance captures the nature of negative affects when individuals’ ability to choose from a range of alternatives is impinged upon. Using data collected from visitors to a south‐eastern National Forest in the Unites States, we tested the hypothesis that household income would be inversely related to the experience of psychological reactance. Our data offered partial support for this hypothesis, illustrating significant differences between the highest and lowest income brackets in the hypothesized direction. These data suggest that lower income groups are more likely to respond negatively toward fees than higher income groups. We also suggest that psychological reactance deserves greater attention by leisure researchers, particula...