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BACKGROUND AND AIMS: ALLHAT, a randomized, double-blind, active-controlled, multicenter clinical trial of high risk hypertensive participants, compared treatment with an ACE-inhibitor (lisinopril) or calcium channel blocker (amlodipine) with a diuretic (chlorthalidone). Primary outcome was the occurrence of fatal coronary heart disease or nonfatal myocardial infarction. For this report, post-hoc analyses were conducted to determine the contribution of baseline characteristics of participants with or without baseline or incident atrial fibrillation (AF) and atrial flutter (AFL) to stroke, heart failure (HF), coronary heart disease (CHD), and mortality outcomes. METHODS AND RESULTS: Minnesota Coding of baseline and biennial in-trial ECGs was used to determine the 334 baseline and 537 incident AF/AFL cases, respectively participants with AF/AFL: Cox regression was used to estimate hazard ratios of presence versus absence of either baseline or incident AF/AFL (as time-dependent covariate) for occurrence of stroke, CHD, HF, or mortality, while adjusting for selected baseline characteristics. Adjusted Cox regression was used to obtain hazard ratios (HRs) for presence versus absence of selected baseline characteristics among those with and without either baseline or incident AF/AFL. After adjusting for baseline characteristics, baseline AF/AFL was associated with stroke, HF, and mortality (HRs [95% CIs] 3.18, [2.34-4.33]; 2.65 [2.02-3.49]; and 2.10 [CI, 1.73-2.55], respectively, P

African Americans have the highest prevalence of hypertension in the United States. Blood-pressure control is important to reduce cardiovascular disease (CVD)-related morbidity and mortality in this ethnic group. Genetic variants have been found to be associated with BP response to treatment. Previous pharmacogenetic studies of blood-pressure response to treatment in African Americans suffer limitations of small sample size as well as a limited number of candidate genes, and often focused on one antihypertensive treatment. Using 1,131 African-American treatment naïve participants from the Genetics of Hypertension Associated Treatment (GenHAT) Study, we examined whether variants in 35 candidate genes might modulate blood-pressure response to four different antihypertensive medications, including an angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitor (lisinopril), a calcium channel blocker (amlodipine), and an α-adrenergic blocker (doxazosin) as compared to a thiazide diuretic (chlorthalidone) after 6 months of follow-up. Several suggestive gene by treatment interactions were identified. For example, among participants with two minor alleles of REN rs6681776, diastolic blood-pressure response was much improved on doxazosin compared to chlorthalidone (on average −9.49 mmHg vs. −1.70 mmHg) (P=0.007). Although several suggestive loci were identified, none of the findings passed significance criteria after correction for multiple testing. Given the impact of hypertension and its sequelae in this population, this research highlights the potential for genetic factors to contribute to blood-pressure response to treatment. Continued concerted research efforts focused on genetics are needed to improve treatment response in this high risk group.

Thiazide-type diuretics have been recommended for initial treatment of hypertension in most patients, but should this recommendation differ for patients with and without coronary heart disease (CHD)? The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT) was a randomized, double-blind hypertension treatment trial in 42,418 participants with high risk of combined cardiovascular disease (CVD) (25% with preexisting CHD). This post hoc analysis compares long-term major clinical outcomes in those assigned amlodipine (n = 9048) or lisinopril (n = 9,054) with those assigned chlorthalidone (n = 15,255), stratified by CHD status. After 4 to 8 years, randomized treatment was discontinued. Total follow-up (active treatment + passive surveillance using national databases for deaths and hospitalizations) was 8 to 13 years. For most CVD outcomes, end-stage renal disease, and total mortality, there were no differences across randomized treatment arms regardless of baseline CHD status. In-trial rates of CVD were significantly higher for lisinopril compared with chlorthalidone, and rates of heart failure were significantly higher for amlodipine compared with chlorthalidone in those with and without CHD (overall hazard ratios [HRs] 1.10, p

Calcium channel-blockers (CCB) are an important class of medication useful in the treatment of hypertension. Several observational studies have suggested an association between CCB therapy and gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Using administrative databases, we re-examined in a post-hoc analysis whether the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT) participants randomized to the calcium-channel blocker amlodipine had a greater risk of hospitalized gastrointestinal bleeding (a pre-specified outcome) compared to those randomized to the diuretic chlorthalidone or the ACE-inhibitor lisinopril. Participants randomized to chlorthalidone did not have a reduced risk for gastrointestinal bleeding hospitalizations compared to participants randomized to amlodipine (HR, 1.09, 95% CI 0.92-1.28). Those randomized to lisinopril were at increased risk of gastrointestinal bleeding compared those randomized to chlorthalidone (HR, 1.16; 95% CI, 1.00-1.36). In a post-hoc comparison, participants assigned lisinopril therapy had a higher risk of hospitalized gastrointestinal hemorrhage (HR,1.27, 95% CI 1.06-1.51) versus those assigned to amlodipine. In-study use of atenolol prior to first gastrointestinal hemorrhage was related to a lower incidence of GI bleeding (HR, 0.69; 95% CI, 0.57-0.83). In conclusion, hypertensive patients on amlodipine do not have an increased risk of GI bleeding hospitalizations compared to those on either chlorthalidone or lisinopril.

The Lipid Lowering Trial component of the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT-LLT) was a multi-center randomized trial comparing usual care versus treatment with an HMG CoA-reductase inhibitor (pravastatin) in a moderately hypercholesterolemic treated hypertensive cohort with other coronary heart disease (CHD) risk factors, including preexisting cardiovascular disease (CVD).1 After an average of 4.8 years of follow-up, there was no difference in the primary endpoint of all-cause mortality (HR 0.99; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.89-1.11; P=.88), and a non-significant lowering of secondary CHD endpoints of nonfatal myocardial infarction (MI) and CHD death (HR 0.91; 95% CI, 0.79-1.04; P=.16).2 Fatal and nonfatal stroke was also non-significantly reduced in the pravastatin group (HR 0.91; 95% CI, 0.75-1.09; P=.31). These results, which contrasted with those of most statin trials,3 were attributed to the diminished power resulting from treatment crossovers and a consequently smaller than expected differential reduction in cholesterol levels. There was no heterogeneity of ALLHAT-LLT primary and secondary outcomes by age, sex, previous history of CHD, history of diabetes or baseline level of cholesterol.2 However, significant differences were observed between Blacks and non-Blacks for secondary outcomes of CHD and stroke. For stroke, pravastatin showed no benefit in Blacks but was protective in non-Blacks (HR 1.12; 95% CI 0.86-1.48; vs. 0.74; 95% CI 0.57-0.96; P for interaction=.03);4 whereas for CHD events pravastatin was protective in Blacks but not in non-Blacks (HR 0.71; 95% CI 0.57-0.90; P=.005 vs. 1.00; 95% CI 0.85-1.19; P=.095, P for interaction=.02).4,5 For CHD events, in-depth analyses have shown that these differences were not accounted for by baseline differences in risk factors, adherence during trial, or achieved blood pressure (BP) and lipid lowering.5 Because Blacks have been under-represented in statin trials and ALLHAT-LLT remains one of the largest statin trials with a substantial proportion of Black participants (38%), further exploration of these unexplained findings is of great scientific interest. The purpose of this paper is to report 10-year mortality and morbidity of ALLHAT-LLT participants using in-trial data, plus post-trial data from administrative databases (National Death Index, Social Security Administration, Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services, and United States Renal Data System)4,6 in order to assess long-term effects of treatment with pravastatin versus usual care. We will focus in particular on whether Black vs. non-Black racial differences in CHD and stroke observed during trial persisted or attenuated. Further, we will examine whether differences emerge for outcomes that were not statistically different at trial's end.

Aims Limited information is available on long-term antihypertensive and lipid-lowering therapy effects on hypertensive patients with atrial fibrillation/flutter (AF/AFL) compared to those without. AF/AFL at baseline or during the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT) (mean follow-up 4.9 years) markedly increased risk of stroke, heart failure, CHD, and all-cause mortality. We aimed to determine if AF/AFL continued to impact outcomes during post-trial follow-up (mean 3.8 years). Methods Patients were randomized to chlorthalidone, amlodipine, or lisinopril, and to pravastatin vs. usual care in the lipid-lowering trial (LLT). Of 31,473 available subjects, AF/AFL occurred in 854; 383/14,371 chlorthalidone (2.7%), 247/8565 amlodipine (2.9%), and 224/8537 lisinopril (2.6%). Post-hoc analyses utilized administrative databases for post-trial data. Individuals with AF/AFL were compared to those without during post-trial. Outcomes were analyzed by treatment groups for the antihypertensive and LLT trials. Results Among 854 AF/AFL participants, 491 (57.5%) died: 220 in-trial, 271 post-trial. Ten-year all-cause mortality rates for those with in-trial AF/AFL were similar for chlorthalidone and lisinopril, but lower for amlodipine (68, 66, and 49 per 100 persons, respectively); adjusted HR for amlodipine vs. chlorthalidone was 0.68 (95% CI, 0.54–0.87). Ten-year all-cause mortality rates were 57 vs. 65 per 100 persons (pravastatin vs. usual care); non-CVD mortality rates, 18 vs. 39 per 100 persons (pravastatin vs. usual care) (adjusted HR = 0.46, 95% CI, 0.24–0.86). Conclusion Post-trial follow-up revealed continued deleterious AF/AFL effects. The amlodipine (ALLHAT) and pravastatin (ALLHAT-LLT) treatment groups showed lower all-cause and non-CVD mortality compared to the chlorthalidone and usual-care groups, respectively.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and cancer are both common in older patients; whether CKD increases risk for cancer is unclear. This study evaluated CKD as a risk factor for cancer mortality in a large cohort of hypertensive patients. STUDY DESIGN We did post-hoc analyses of in-trial and post-trial data from participants in the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Participants were ≥ 55 years old with hypertension and one other additional risk factor for coronary heart disease. PREDICTOR Baseline estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). OUTCOMES Cancer mortality was ascertained by cancer-related deaths reported in national databases during and after the trial. Cox proportional hazard models were used to calculate hazard ratios (HRs) adjusted for possible confounders and were stratified by baseline GFR. RESULTS Participants' mean age was 66.9 years. After a mean follow-up of 8.9 years, there were 2,338 reported cancer-related deaths. Participants with GFR < 45 mL/min/1.73 m2 were at increased risk of cancer mortality compared to those with GFR ≥ 90 mL/min/1.73 m2 (adjusted HR 1.54 (1.22 - 1.94), p-value for trend 0.004). These findings were consistent across subgroups defined by race, gender, and diabetes. Participants with GFR < 45 mL/min/1.73 m2 were at higher risk for mortality related to colon cancer (p-value for trend 0.048, HR 2.28 (1.12 - 4.62)) and urinary tract cancer (p-value for trend 0.001, adjusted HR 2.95 (1.14 - 7.65)). LIMITATIONS This is a post hoc analysis of clinical trial data. CONCLUSIONS In a large cohort of hypertensive patients, GFR < 45 mL/min/1.73 m2 was associated with a higher risk of cancer-related mortality.

Summary Background and objectives CKD is common among older patients. This article assesses long-term renal and cardiovascular outcomes in older high-risk hypertensive patients, stratified by baseline estimated GFR (eGFR), and long-term outcome efficacy of 5-year first-step treatment with amlodipine or lisinopril, each compared with chlorthalidone. Design, setting, participants, & measurements This was a long-term post-trial follow-up of hypertensive participants (n=31,350), aged $55 years, randomized to receive chlorthalidone, amlodipine, or lisinopril for 4–8 years at 593 centers. Participants were stratified by baseline eGFR (ml/min per 1.73 m2) as follows: normal/ increased ($90; n=8027), mild reduction (60–89; n=17,778), and moderate/severe reduction (,60; n=5545). Outcomes were cardiovascular mortality (primary outcome), total mortality, coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, stroke, heart failure, and ESRD. Results After an average 8.8-year follow-up, total mortality was significantly higher in participants with moderate/severe eGFR reduction compared with those with normal and mildly reduced eGFR (P,0.001). In participants with an eGFR ,60, there was no significant difference in cardiovascular mortality between chlorthalidone and amlodipine (P=0.64), or chlorthalidone and lisinopril (P=0.56). Likewise, no significant differences were observed for total mortality, coronary heart disease, cardiovascular disease, stroke, or ESRD. ConclusionsCKD is associated with significantly higher long-term risk of cardiovascular events and mortality in older hypertensive patients. By eGFR stratum, 5-year treatment with amlodipine or lisinopril was not superior to chlorthalidoneinpreventingcardiovascularevents,mortality,orESRDduring9-yearfollow-up.Becausedataon proteinuria were not available, these findings may not be extrapolated to proteinuric CKD.

To identify panels of genetic variants that predict treatment-related coronary heart disease (CHD) outcomes in hypertensive patients on one of four different classes of initial antihypertensive treatment. The goal was to identify subgroups of individuals on the basis of their genetic profile who benefit most from a particular treatment.Candidate genetic variants (n=78) were genotyped in 39 114 participants from Genetics of Hypertension Associated Treatment study, ancillary to Antihypertensive and Lipid Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial. Antihypertensive and Lipid Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial randomized hypertensive participants (≥55 years) to one of four treatments (amlodipine, chlorthalidone, doxazosin, lisinopril). The primary outcome was fatal CHD or nonfatal myocardial infarction (mean follow-up=4.9 years). A pharmacogenetic panel was derived within each of the four treatment groups. Receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) curves estimated the discrimination rate between those with and without a CHD event, on the basis of the addition of the genetic panel risk score.For each treatment group, we identified a panel of genetic variants that collectively improved the prediction of CHD to a small but statistically significant extent. Chlorthalidone (A): NOS3 rs3918226; SELE rs5361; ICAM1 rs1799969; AGT rs5051; GNAS rs7121; ROC comparison, P=0.004; Amlodipine (B): MMP1 rs1799750; Factor5 (F5) rs6025; NPPA rs5065; PDE4D rs6450512; MMP9 rs2274756; ROC comparison, P=0.006; Lisinopril (C): AGT rs5051; PON1 rs705379; MMP12 rs652438; F12 rs1801020; GP1BA rs6065; PDE4D rs27653; ROC comparison, P=0.01; Doxazosin (D): F2 rs1799963; PAI1 rs1799768; MMP7 rs11568818; AGT rs5051; ACE rs4343; MMP2 rs243865; ROC comparison, P=0.007. Each panel was tested for a pharmacogenetic effect; panels A, B, and D showed such evidence (P=0.009, 0.006, and 0.001, respectively) and panel C did not (P=0.09).Because each panel was associated with CHD in a specific treatment group but not the others, this research provides evidence that it may be possible to use gene panel scores as a tool to better assess antihypertensive treatment choices to reduce CHD risk in hypertensive individuals.

Concerns exist that diuretic-induced changes in serum potassium may have adverse effects in hypertensive patients. The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial, a large practice-based clinical trial, made it possible to examine consequences of observed changes in potassium during care in conventional practice settings. Normokalemic participants randomized to chlorthalidone (C) versus amlodipine or lisinopril as a first-step drug were stratified by year-1 potassium. Postyear-1 outcomes among hypokalemics (potassium, 5.4 mmol/L) were compared with normokalemics (potassium, 3.5–5.4 mmol/L). Year-1 hypokalemia incidence was 6.8%; incidence in C (12.9%) differed from amlodipine (2.1%; P P P P P

Background— Thiazide-type diuretics are associated with an increased incidence of diabetes compared with other antihypertensive medications. In this study, we determined the long-term cardiovascular disease (CVD) consequences of incident diuretic-associated diabetes compared with the effects of incident diabetes associated with calcium channel blocker and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor use. Methods and Results— A total of 22 418 participants from the ALLHAT (Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial) with baseline diabetes, incident diabetes (7.5% with chlorthalidone, 5.6% with amlodipine, and 4.3% with lisinopril), or no diabetes at 2 years of in-trial follow-up were followed for a mean total of 6.9 years (2.9 years in-trial and 4 additional years posttrial) through the use of national databases. The primary outcome was CVD mortality (death from coronary heart disease [CHD], stroke, heart failure, or other CVD). Among other outcomes were all-cause mortality, non-CVD mortality, and CHD (nonfatal myocardial infarction or fatal CHD). Participants on chlorthalidone with incident diabetes versus no diabetes had consistently lower, nonsignificant risk for CVD mortality (hazard ratio [HR], 1.04; 95% CI, 0.74–1.47), all-cause mortality (HR, 1.04; 95% CI, 0.82–1.30), and non-CVD mortality (HR, 1.05; 95% CI, 0.77–1.42) than participants on amlodipine or lisinopril with incident diabetes (HR range, 1.22–1.53). Participants with incident diabetes had elevated CHD risk compared with those with no diabetes (HR, 1.46; 95% CI, 1.09–1.96), but those on chlorthalidone had significantly lower risk than those on lisinopril (HR, 1.18 versus 2.57; P =0.04 for interaction). Conclusions— The findings suggest that thiazide-related incident diabetes has less adverse long-term CVD impact than incident diabetes that develops while on other antihypertensive medications. Clinical Trial Registration— URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov . Unique identifier: NCT00000542.

A randomized, double-blind, active-controlled, multicenter trial assigned 32,804 participants aged 55 years and older with hypertension and ≥ 1 other coronary heart disease risk factors to receive chlorthalidone (n=15,002), amlodipine (n=8898), or lisinopril (n=8904) for 4 to 8 years, when double-blinded therapy was discontinued. Passive surveillance continued for a total follow-up of 8 to 13 years using national administrative databases to ascertain deaths and hospitalizations. During the post-trial period, fatal outcomes and nonfatal outcomes were available for 98% and 65% of participants, respectively, due to lack of access to administrative databases for the remainder. This paper assesses whether mortality and morbidity differences persisted or new differences developed during the extended follow-up. Primary outcome was cardiovascular mortality and secondary outcomes were mortality, stroke, coronary heart disease, heart failure, cardiovascular disease, and end-stage renal disease. For the post-trial period, data are not available on medications or blood pressure levels. No significant differences (P

Background and Purpose— Atherothrombotic diseases including stroke share a common etiology of atherosclerosis, and susceptibility to atherosclerosis has a genetic component. Stromelysin-1 (matrix metalloproteinase-3 [MMP3]) regulates arterial matrix composition and is a candidate gene for atherothrombosis. A common polymorphism of MMP3 alters expression levels and affects atherosclerotic progression and plaque stability. As part of the Genetics of Hypertension Associated Treatment study, ancillary to the Antihypertensive and Lipid Lowering to Prevent Heart Attack Trial, we evaluated the 5A/6A polymorphism in MMP3 to determine its association with stroke and determine whether it modifies clinical outcome response to blood pressure–lowering drugs. Methods— The effect of the MMP3 5A/6A polymorphism on stroke rates was examined by using multivariate-adjusted Cox regression models, including a test for interactions between genotype and antihypertensive drug class. Results— Compared with participants treated with chlorthalidone with the 6A/6A genotype, individuals with the 6A/6A genotype randomized to lisinopril had higher stroke rates (hazard ratio=1.32; 95% CI, 1.08 to 1.61; P =0.007) and 5A/6A individuals taking lisinopril had lower stroke rates (hazard ratio interaction =0.74; 95% CI, 0.53 to 1.04; P interaction =0.08), whereas 5A/5A individuals taking lisinopril had the lowest stroke rate (hazard ratio interaction =0.51; 95% CI, 0.31 to 0.85; P interaction =0.009). There were no pharmacogenetic differences in stroke rate by genotype in patients taking amlodipine or doxazosin vs chlorthalidone. Conclusions— The MMP3 6A/6A genotype is associated with an increased risk of stroke in hypertensive subjects taking lisinopril compared with patients treated with chlorthalidone, whereas a protective effect was found for 5A/5A individuals treated with lisinopril. Genetic screening for the MMP3 5A/6A genotype might be a useful tool to select optimal antihypertensive therapy if this finding is replicated. Clinical Trial Registration— URL: http://www.clinicaltrials.gov . Unique identifier: NCT00563901.

Several clinical studies report increased risk of diabetes mellitus (DM) with pharmacologic treatment for hypertension (HTN). HTN genes may modify glycemic response to antihypertensive treatment. The current study examined the association of 24 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 11 HTN candidate genes with fasting glucose measured at 2, 4, and 6 years after treatment initiation. The study sample included participants free of diabetes at baseline in the Genetics of Hypertension Associated Treatment (GenHAT) study (N=9,309). GenHAT participants were randomized to receive treatment with a diuretic (chlorthalidone), calcium channel blocker (amlodipine), or ACE inhibitor (lisinopril). Mixed models for repeated measures were employed to test for gene and pharmacogenetic associations with fasting glucose during follow-up. Fasting glucose at year 2 increased on average 6.8 mg/dL, 4.8 mg/dL and 3.0 mg/dL from baseline in the chlorthalidone, amlodipine and lisinopril groups, respectively. Carrying the I allele (rs1799752) of the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) I/D polymorphism was associated with lower fasting glucose levels (P=0.02). Additionally, an ACE promoter polymorphism (−262, rs4291) was associated with lower fasting glucose for the model AA/AT vs. TT which remained significant after correction for multiple testing (P=0.001). Finally, a SNP in the α-subunit of the amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium channel (SCNN1A, rs2228576) modified the association of amlodipine versus chlorthalidone treatment with fasting glucose (P

Background In previous analyses in ALLHAT, blacks had a significantly lower risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) in the pravastatin group compared to the usual care group, whereas non-blacks had no benefit from pravastatin. No previous statin trial has reported results separately in blacks. Objectives The study aimed to determine if apparent racial differences in CHD in ALLHAT are explained by differences in baseline characteristics, adherence during the trial, or achieved blood pressure and lipid lowering. Methods This was a prespecified subgroup analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Hypertensive, moderately hypercholesterolemic participants were assigned to open-label pravastatin (40 mg/d) or usual care. The outcome was a composite of nonfatal myocardial infarction and fatal CHD. We performed intention-to-treat survival analyses using Cox proportional hazards models, adjusting for baseline covariates (age, sex, aspirin use, history of CHD and diabetes, and baseline hypertension treatment) and time-varying levels of blood pressure and total cholesterol. Results After adjustment for baseline characteristics, there remained a significant interaction between race and treatment group ( P = .02). In stratified models, blacks in the pravastatin group had a 29% lower risk of CHD (hazard ratio [HR] 0.71, 95% CI 0.57-0.90, P = .005) compared to those in the usual care group, whereas non-blacks had no benefit (HR 1.00, 95% CI 0.85-1.19, P = .95). With further adjustment for achieved blood pressure and total cholesterol, the HR in blacks was 0.65 (95% CI 0.45-0.96, P = .03) and in non-blacks was 1.07 (95% CI 0.81-1.41, P = .65). Conclusions Our results suggest that pravastatin is effective in preventing CHD in blacks.

ObjectivesThe ALLHAT (Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial) determined that treatment with amlodipine, lisinopril, or doxazosin was not superior to thiazide-like diuretic (chlorthalidone) in preventing coronary heart disease (CHD) or other cardiovascular events. This subanalysis examines baseline prevalence and in-trial incidence of new-onset atrial fibrillation (AF) or atrial flutter (AFL) and their influence on clinical outcomes.BackgroundLimited information is available on whether atrial fibrillation incidence is affected differentially by different classes of antihypertensive medications or treatment with statins.MethodsAF/AFL was identified from baseline and follow-up electrocardiograms performed biannually. Analyses were performed to identify characteristics associated with baseline AF/AFL and its subsequent incidence.ResultsAF/AFL was present at baseline in 423 participants (1.1%), more frequent in men (odds ratio: 1.72; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.37 to 2.17) and nonblacks (odds ratio: 2.09; 95% CI: 1.58 to 2.75). Its prevalence increased with age (p < 0.001) and was associated with CHD, cardiovascular disease, obesity, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol

The FGB gene codes for fibrinogen-beta, a polypeptide of the coagulation factor fibrinogen, which is positively associated with cardiovascular diseases. Studies show that angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors lower plasma fibrinogen concentrations, whereas diuretics and calcium-channel blockers do not. As carriers of the FGB-455 minor 'A' allele have higher levels of fibrinogen while ACE inhibitors lower it, we hypothesize that 'A' allele carriers benefit more from antihypertensive treatment with ACE inhibitors than calcium-channel blockers or diuretics, relative to 'GG' genotype individuals.The Genetics of Hypertension Associated Treatment (GenHAT) study [ancillary to Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT)] genotyped hypertensive participants for several hypertension-related candidate genes, making this a post-hoc analysis of a randomized trial. In total, 90.1% of the ALLHAT population was successfully genotyped for FGB-455. We included participants (n=30 076) randomized to one of three antihypertensive medications (lisinopril, amlodipine, chlorthalidone), with two treatment comparisons: lisinopril versus chlorthalidone and lisinopril versus amlodipine. The primary outcome of ALLHAT/GenHAT was coronary heart disease, defined as fatal coronary heart disease or non-fatal myocardial infarction, and secondary outcomes included stroke, heart failure, all-cause mortality, and end-stage renal disease (ESRD) with mean follow-up time of 4.9 years. Genotype-by-treatment interactions (pharmacogenetic effects) were tested with the Cox regression.Stroke: common 'GG' homozygotes had higher risk on lisinopril versus amlodipine [hazard ratio (HR)=1.38, P0.001], whereas minor 'A' allele carriers had slightly lower risk (HR=0.96, P=0.76; P value for interaction=0.03). Mortality: 'GG' homozygotes had higher risk on lisinopril versus amlodipine (HR=1.12, P=0.02) or chlorthalidone (1.05, P=0.23), whereas 'A' allele carriers had slightly lower risk (HR=0.92, P=0.33 for lisinopril versus amlodipine; HR=0.88, P=0.08 for lisinopril versus chlorthalidone; P value for interactions 0.04 and 0.03, respectively). ESRD: 'GG' homozygotes had higher risk on lisinopril versus chlorthalidone (HR=1.27, P=0.08), whereas 'A' allele carriers had lower risk (HR=0.64, P=0.12; P value for interaction=0.03).There was evidence of pharmacogenetic effects of FGB-455 on stroke, ESRD, and mortality, suggesting that relative to those homozygous for the common allele, variant allele carriers of the FGB gene at position -455 have a better outcome if randomized to lisinopril than chlorthalidone (for mortality and ESRD) or amlodipine (for mortality and stroke). For the models in which a pharmacogenetic effect was observed, the outcome rates among 'GG' homozygotes were higher in those randomized to lisinopril versus amlodipine or chlorthalidone, whereas minor 'A' allele carriers had lower event rates when randomized to lisinopril versus the other medications.

BackgroundHigh homocysteine blood concentrations predispose to coronary artery disease and statins influence homocysteine levels.AimTo study whether genes that regulate homocysteine metabolism interact with statins to modify the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) and other cardiovascular outcomes.

Summary Research suggests pulse pressure (PP) is a predictor of cardiovascular disease, and genes likely influence PP levels. Additionally, gender may be an effect modifier between PP and cardiovascular disease. This study addresses whether two renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) variants are associated with PP in a sex-specific manner (genotype-by-sex interaction). Subjects comprised 35,048 GenHAT study participants over 55 years old, approximately half were women and half nonHispanic white. Blood pressure measurements were obtained 6 months after randomization to one of four antihypertensive medications. The polymorphisms considered were AGT-6 and ACE-I/D. We employed linear regression to assess the interaction. AGT-6 showed a significant (p < 0.001) genotype-by-sex interaction. Men with the ‘G/G’ genotype had a higher PP (0.6 mm HG) than men carrying an ‘A’ allele, while ‘G/G’ women had a lower PP (0.7 mm Hg) than women carrying an ‘A’ allele. Three of the four treatment groups (chlorthalidone, amlodipine and lisinopril) suggested a consistent interaction in sub-group analyses (only amlodipine was statistically significant, p < 0.001), whereas doxazosin did not. The interaction was evident among non-Hispanic participants but not among Hispanic participants. For ACE-I/D no evidence for a genotype-by-sex interaction was detected. This finding of genotype-by-sex interaction on PP helps our understanding of the complexity of genetic effects on blood pressure.

Background The aim of this study was to determine whether the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) insertion-deletion (ID) polymorphism interacts with pravastatin to modify the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) and other cardiovascular end points in a large clinical trial. Methods GenHAT is an ancillary study of the ALLHAT. The ACE ID genotyped population in the lipid-lowering arm of ALLHAT included 9467 participants randomly assigned to pravastatin (n = 4741) or to usual care (n = 4726). The efficacy of pravastatin in reducing the risk of primary outcome (all-cause mortality) and secondary outcomes (fatal CHD and nonfatal myocardial infarction, cardiovascular disease [CVD] mortality, CHD, stroke, other CVD, non-CVD mortality, stroke, and heart failure) was compared between the genotype strata (dominant model ID + II vs DD, additive model II vs ID vs DD), by examining an interaction term in a Cox proportional hazards model. Results The relative risk of fatal CHD and nonfatal myocardial infarction among subjects randomized to pravastatin compared with subjects randomized to usual care was similar in subjects with the II genotype (hazard ratio [HR] 0.84, 95% CI 0.59-1.18), the ID genotype (HR 0.84, 95% CI 0.68-1.03), and the DD genotype (HR 0.99, 95% CI 0.77-1.27). Conclusions We found no evidence that the ACE ID genotype was a major modifier of the efficacy of pravastatin in reducing the risk of cardiovascular events.

Angioedema is a rare, potentially life-threatening condition that has been associated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors since their introduction in the 1980s. The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT), the largest antihypertensive study conducted to date, randomized 42,418 participants to a diuretic (chlorthalidone), a calcium channel blocker (amlodipine), an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (lisinopril), or an alpha-blocker (doxazosin). Patients who developed angioedema were compared for baseline characteristics and changes in antihypertensive drug administration. Fifty-three participants developed angioedema during active follow-up: 55% were black, 60% men, and 70% were assigned to lisinopril (including 62% of black participants with angioedema), 15% to chlorthalidone, 9% to doxazosin, and 6% to amlodipine. Six percent occurred within a day of randomization and 23% within the first week. Over half did not have an increase in their assigned (blinded) antihypertensive drug before angioedema onset; 3 (6%) had a dose increase within a week before onset. One patient died following an angioedema episode. The occurrence of angioedema in the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor arm corresponds with previously reported angioedema-angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor associations.

In a double-blind, outcome trial conducted in hypertensive patients randomized to chlorthalidone (C), amlodipine (A), lisinopril (L), or doxazosin (D), the alpha-adducin Gly460Trp polymorphism was typed (n=36 913). Mean follow-up was 4.9 years. Relative risks (RRs) of chlorthalidone versus other treatments were compared between genotypes (Gly/Gly+Gly/Trp versus Trp/Trp). Primary outcome was coronary heart disease (CHD). Coronary heart disease incidence did not differ among treatments or genotypes nor was there any interaction between treatment and genotype (P=0.660). Subgroup analyses indicated that Trp allele carriers had greater CHD risk with C versus A+L in women (RR=1.31) but not men (RR=0.91) with no RR gender differences for non-carriers (gender-gene-treatment interaction, P=0.002). The alpha-adducin gene is not an important modifier of antihypertensive treatment on cardiovascular risk, but women Trp allele carriers may have increased CHD risk if treated with C versus A or L. This must be confirmed to have implications for hypertension treatment.

There is a sizeable literature on methods for detecting gene-environment interaction in the framework of case-control studies, particularly with reference to the assumption of independence of genotype and exposure. In the context of a clinical trial, wherein gene-drug interactions with regard to outcomes are examined, these methods may be readily applied, as gene and drug are independent by randomization. In an active-controlled trial (experimental treatment vs standard) that has collected genotype information, gene-drug interactions can be estimated. In addition, the effect of the experimental treatment vs placebo can be imputed by using data from a historical placebo-controlled trial (standard vs placebo) if either (a) genotype information is available from the historical trial or (b) assumptions are made about the prevalence of genotype and the odds ratios of genotype and disease in the historical trial using information from other studies. Motivation for these procedures is provided by the Genetics of Hypertension Associated Treatment, a large pharmacogenetics, ancillary study of a hypertension clinical trial, and examples from published hypertension trials will be used to illustrate the methods.

The Antihypertensive and Lipid‐Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT) consisted of 42,418 participants randomized to one of four antihypertensive treatment groups: chlorthalidone, amlodipine, lisinopril, or doxazosin. A subset of these participants with fasting low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol levels 100–189 mg/dL were randomized into a lipid‐lowering component: 5170 to receive pravastatin (40 mg daily) and 5185 to receive usual care. This report describes the characteristics and lipid distribution of these participants. There were no important differences between the randomized treatment groups. Women had higher total cholesterol, low‐density lipoprotein cholesterol, and high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol than men. There was a similar finding for black participants compared with whites, except blacks had lower triglycerides. Diabetics had lower high‐density lipoprotein cholesterol and higher triglycerides than nondiabetics, and patients with body mass index

Context Blood pressure control ( Objective To determine the success and predictors of blood pressure control in a large hypertension trial involving a multiethnic population in diverse practice settings. Design The Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial is a randomized, double-blind, active-controlled clinical trial with a mean follow-up of 4.9 years. Participant enrollment began in February 1994 and follow-up was completed in March 2002. Setting A total of 623 centers in the United States, Canada, and the Caribbean. Participants A total of 33,357 participants (aged > or =55 years) with hypertension and at least one other coronary heart disease risk factor. Interventions Participants were randomly assigned to receive (double-blind) chlorthalidone, 12.5-25 mg/d (n=15,255), amlodipine 2.5-10 mg/d (n=9048), or lisinopril 10-40 mg/d (n=9054) after other medication was discontinued. Doses were increased within these ranges and additional drugs from other classes were added as needed to achieve blood pressure control ( Main outcome measures The outcome measures for this report are systolic and diastolic blood pressure, the proportion of participants achieving blood pressure control ( Results Mean age was 67 years, 47% were women, 35% black, 36% diabetic; 90% were on antihypertensive drug treatment at entry. At the first of two pre-randomization visits, blood pressure was or =2 drugs was 63%. Blood pressure control varied by geographic regions, practice settings, and demographic and clinical characteristics of participants. Conclusions These data demonstrate that blood pressure may be controlled in two thirds of a multiethnic hypertensive population in diverse practice settings. Systolic blood pressure is more difficult to control than diastolic blood pressure, and at least two antihypertensive medications are required for most patients to achieve blood pressure control. It is likely that the majority of people with hypertension could achieve a blood pressure

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate whether there is a genotype-by-treatment interaction in patients experiencing stroke and treated with one of three antihypertensive drugs, that is chlorthalidone, amlodipine, or lisinopril.PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS: A population of 436 African Americans and 539 whites who had experienced stroke in the GenHAT study were genotyped for 768 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 280 candidate genes. To detect a genotype-by-treatment interaction, we used the Pearson's χ-test to assess whether the genotype frequencies differed at the single SNP level for the three drug treatment groups. From these single SNP analyses, we derived a summary statistic for the degree of association at the gene and gene complex levels. This was done by grouping SNPs using information on gene locations and defining gene complexes on the basis of protein-protein interactions. To assess the statistical significance of the observed test statistic, we derived an empirical P-value by simulating data under the null hypothesis.RESULTS: We found that, in patients who have experienced stroke, there is a significant genetic difference between hypertension drug treatment groups. In African Americans, SNP rs12143842 showed a significant association (PCONCLUSION: On the basis of the genetic differences between drug treatment groups, we conclude that there may be an interaction between certain genotypes and antihypertensive treatment in stroke patients. This needs to be replicated in other studies.

Previous studies have reported that risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality substantially increases in hypertensive patients, especially among those with inadequate blood pressure control. Two common antihypertensive drug classes including thiazide diuretics and angiotensinogen converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors affect different enzymes in the renin angiotensinogen aldosterone system (RAAS). In the RAAS, angiotensinogen is converted into angiotensin II which increases blood pressure through vasoconstriction. Using a case-only design with 3,448 high-risk hypertensive individuals from the Genetics of Hypertension Associated Treatment (GenHAT) study, we examined whether 7 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the angiotensinogen gene (AGT) interact with three classes of antihypertensive drugs including chlorthalidone (a thiazide diuretic), lisinopril (an ACE inhibitor), and amlodipine (a calcium channel blocker) to modify the risk of incident coronary heart disease (CHD) and heart failure (HF) among Caucasian and African American participants, separately. We found no gene by treatment interactions to be statistically significant after correction for multiple testing. However, some suggestive results were found. African American participants with the minor allele of rs11122576 had over two-fold higher risk of CHD when using chlorthalidone compared to using amlodipine, or lisinopril compared to amlodipine (p=0.006, and p=0.01, respectively). Other marginal associations are also reported among both race groups. The findings reported here suggest that rs11122576 could contribute to future personalization of antihypertensive treatment among African Americans though more studies are needed.

The Antihypertensive and Lipid Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT) is a randomized, practice-based trial sponsored by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI). The double-blind, active-controlled component of ALLHAT was designed to determine whether the rate of the primary outcome-a composite of fatal coronary heart disease and nonfatal myocardial infarction-differs between diuretic (chlorthalidone) treatment and each of three other classes of antihypertensive drugs: a calcium antagonist (amlodipine), an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor (lisinopril), and an alpha-adrenergic blocker (doxazosin) in high-risk hypertensive persons ages 55 years and older. In addition, 10,377 ALLHAT participants with mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia were also enrolled in a randomized, open-label trial designed to determine whether lowering serum LDL cholesterol with an HMG CoA reductase inhibitor (pravastatin) will reduce all-cause mortality as compared to a control group receiving "usual care." In January 2000, an independent data review committee recommended discontinuing the doxazosin treatment arm. The NHLBI director promptly accepted the recommendation. This article discusses the steps involved in the orderly closeout of one arm of ALLHAT and the dissemination of trial results. These steps included provisional preparations; the actual decision process; establishing a timetable; forming a transition committee; preparing materials and instructions; informing 65 trial officers and coordinators, 628 active clinics and satellite locations, 313 institutional review boards, over 42,000 patients, and the general public; reporting detailed trial results; and monitoring the closeout process. Control Clin Trials 2001;22:29-41

The study of the early history of the Moscow school of the theory of functions has been greatly enhanced by the discovery of correspondence between one of its founders, N. N. Luzin, and the priest, theologian, philosopher, and scientist P. A. Florensky. The correspondence reveals that Luzin experienced a profound spiritual crisis in 1905 when his materialist worldview collapsed. This crisis continued for three years and was finally resolved when Luzin had a decisive encounter with the religious philosophy of Florensky. After this, Luzin's interest in mathematics gradually revived until he was able, by 1909, to commit himself to a career in mathematics. Copyright 1998 Academic Press. Les etudes concernant l'histoire des debuts de l'ecole moscovite de la theorie des functions ont ete grandement eclairees par la decouverte d'une correspondance entre l'un de ses fondateurs, N. N. Luzin, et P. A. Florenski, un pretre, theologien, philosophe, et savant. Cette correspondance revele que Luzin a traverse une crise spirituelle profonde a partir de 1905, lorsque sa perspective materialiste du monde s'est effondree. Cette crise a dure trois ans, et a trouve sa resolution dans la rencontre decisive de Luzin avec la philosophie religieuse de Florenski. Par la suite, l'interet de Luzin pour les mathematiques s'est progressivement ravive, jusqu'a ce qu'il soit en mesure de decider, en 1909, de consacrer sa vie aux mathematiques. Copyright 1998 Academic Press. [formula] Copyright 1998 Academic Press. MSC 1991 subject classification: 01A30, 01A60, 01A80, 03-03

Treatment resistant hypertension (TRH) is defined as uncontrolled hypertension (HTN) despite the use of ≥3 antihypertensive medication classes or controlled HTN while treated with ≥4 antihypertensive medication classes. Risk factors for TRH include increasing age, diminished kidney function, higher body mass index, diabetes, and African American (AA) race. Importantly, previous studies suggest a genetic role in TRH, although the genetics of TRH are largely understudied. With 2203 treatment resistant cases and 2354 treatment responsive controls (36% AA) from the Genetics of Hypertension Associated Treatment Study (GenHAT), we assessed the association of 78 candidate gene polymorphisms with TRH status using logistic regression. After stratifying by race and adjusting for potential confounders, there were 2 genetic variants in the AGT gene (rs699, rs5051) statistically significantly associated with TRH among white participants. The Met allele of rs699 and the G allele of rs5051 were positively associated with TRH:OR=1.27 (1.12–1.44),P=0.0001, andOR=1.36 (1.20–1.53),P<0.0001, respectively. There was no similar association among AA participants (race interactionP=0.0004for rs699 andP=0.0001for rs5051). This research contributes to our understanding of the genetic basis of TRH, and further genetic studies of TRH may help reach the goal of better clinical outcomes for hypertensive patients.

Nearly one-third of adults in the U.S. have hypertension, which is associated with increased cardiovascular disease (CVD) morbidity and mortality. The goal of antihypertensive pharmacogenetic research is to enhance understanding of drug response based on the interaction of individual genetic architecture and antihypertensive therapy to improve blood pressure control and ultimately prevent CVD outcomes. In the context of the Genetics of Hypertension Associated Treatment (GenHAT) study and using a case-only design, we examined whether single nucleotide polymorphisms in RYR3 interact with four classes of antihypertensive drugs, particularly the calcium channel blocker amlodipine versus other classes, to modify the risk of coronary heart disease (CHD; fatal CHD and non-fatal myocardial infarction combined) and heart failure in high-risk hypertensive individuals. RYR3 mediates the mobilization of stored Ca+2 in cardiac and skeletal muscle to initiate muscle contraction. There was suggestive evidence of pharmacogenetic effects on heart failure, the strongest of which was for rs877087, with the smallest p-value =.0005 for the codominant model when comparing amlodipine versus all other treatments. There were no pharmacogenetic effects observed for CHD. The findings reported here for the case-only analysis of the antihypertensive pharmacogenetic effect of RYR3 among 3,058 CHD cases and 1,940 heart failure cases show that a hypertensive patient’s genetic profile may help predict which medication(s) might better lower cardiovascular disease risk.

A randomized, double-blind, active-controlled, multicenter trial assigned 32,804 participants aged 55 years and older with hypertension and ≥ 1 other coronary heart disease risk factors to receive chlorthalidone (n=15,002), amlodipine (n=8898), or lisinopril (n=8904) for 4 to 8 years, when double-blinded therapy was discontinued. Passive surveillance continued for a total follow-up of 8 to 13 years using national administrative databases to ascertain deaths and hospitalizations. During the post-trial period, fatal outcomes and nonfatal outcomes were available for 98% and 65% of participants, respectively, due to lack of access to administrative databases for the remainder. This paper assesses whether mortality and morbidity differences persisted or new differences developed during the extended follow-up. Primary outcome was cardiovascular mortality and secondary outcomes were mortality, stroke, coronary heart disease, heart failure, cardiovascular disease, and end-stage renal disease. For the post-trial period, data are not available on medications or blood pressure levels. No significant differences (P.05) appeared in cardiovascular mortality for amlodipine (hazard ratio [HR], 1.00; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.93-1.06) or lisinopril (HR, 0.97; CI, 0.90-1.03), each compared with chlorthalidone. The only significant differences in secondary outcomes were for heart failure, which was higher with amlodipine (HR, 1.12; CI, 1.02-1.22), and stroke mortality, which was higher with lisinopril (HR, 1.20; CI, 1.01-1.41), each compared with chlorthalidone. Similar to the previously reported in-trial result, there was a significant treatment-by-race interaction for cardiovascular disease for lisinopril vs chlorthalidone. Black participants had higher risk than non-black participants taking lisinopril compared with chlorthalidone. After accounting for multiple comparisons, none of these results were significant. These findings suggest that neither calcium channel blockers nor angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors are superior to diuretics for the long-term prevention of major cardiovascular complications of hypertension.

Background. Tuberculosis (TB) disease diagnosis in Vietnam relies on symptom screening, chest radiography (CXR), and acid fast bacilli (AFB) sputum smear which have a poor sensitivity in HIV patients. We evaluated the performance of clinical algorithms in screening and diagnosing AFB smear-negative TB in HIV patients.Methods. We enrolled 399 HIV-positive patients seeking care at a HIV clinic in Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), Vietnam. Participants’ demographics, medical history, common TB symptoms, CXR, and laboratory tests were collected.Results. Of 399 HIV patients, 390 had initial AFB-negative smears and 22/390 patients had positive cultures. Symptom screening missed 54% (12/22) of smear-negative pulmonary TB (PTB) cases. Multivariate analysis found CD4+ cell level and CXR were significant PTB predictors. An algorithm combining four TB symptoms and TST presented a high sensitivity (100%), but poorly specific (24%) diagnostic performance for smear-negative PTB.Conclusion. Up to 54% of PTB cases in the HIV-infected population may be missed in the routine screening and diagnostic procedures used in Vietnam. Symptom screening was a poor overall diagnostic measure in detecting smear-negative TB in HIV patients. Our study results suggest that routine sputum cultures should be implemented to achieve a more accurate diagnosis of TB in HIV patients.

Nitric oxide synthase 3 (NOS3) catalyzes production of NO in the endothelium and may play a role in cardiovascular disease (CVD). We assessed the pharmacogenetic associations of three NOS3 polymorphisms and three antihypertensive drugs with CVD outcomes. Hypertensive subjects (n = 30,280) from a multi-center, double-blind clinical trial were randomized to chlorthalidone, amlodipine, or lisinopril treatment (mean follow up, 4.9 years). Outcomes included coronary heart disease (CHD: fatal CHD and nonfatal myocardial infarction); stroke; heart failure (fatal, requiring hospitalization, or outpatient treatment); all-cause mortality; and end-stage renal disease (ESRD). Main effects of NOS3 variants on outcome and genotype-treatment interactions were tested. For NOS3 −690 C>T (rs3918226), a higher hazard ratio (HR) was found in minor allele carriers for CHD (CC = 1.00, CT+TT = 1.12 (95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.00–1.26), P = 0.048). For NOS3 −922 A>G (rs1800779), a higher HR was found in minor allele carriers for heart failure (AA = 1.00, AG+GG = 1.10 (CI = 1.00–1.21), P = 0.046). Significant pharmacogenetic findings were observed for stroke and all-cause mortality. For −690 C>T, a lower HR was observed for stroke in minor allele carriers when treated with amlodipine versus lisinopril (CC = 0.85 (CI = 0.73–0.99), CT+TT = 0.49 (CI = 0.31–0.80), P = 0.04). For glu298asp G>T (rs1799983), a lower HR was observed for all-cause mortality in minor allele carriers when treated with amlodipine versus lisinopril (GG = 1.01 (CI = 0.91–1.13), GT+TT = 0.85 (CI = 0.75–0.97), P = 0.04). We observed significant associations with NOS3 variants and CHD and heart failure and significant pharmacogenetic effects for stroke and all cause mortality. This suggests that NOS3 variants may potentially provide useful clinical information with respect to treatment decisions in the future.

The debate over whether certain antihypertensive medications have benefits beyond what would be expected from their blood pressure lowering spurred the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial, which randomized 42,418 participants to chlorthalidone (15,255), amlodipine (9048), lisinopril (9054), or doxazosin (9061). We compared chlorthalidone, the active control, with each of the other three agents with respect to the primary outcome, fatal coronary heart disease or nonfatal myocardial infarction, and several other clinical endpoints. The arms were similar with respect to the primary endpoint, although some differences were found for other endpoints, most notably heart failure. Although the desire was to achieve similar blood pressure reductions in the four arms, we found some systolic blood pressure and diastolic blood pressure differences. A natural question is to what degree can observed treatment group differences in cardiovascular outcomes be attributed to these blood pressure differences. The purpose of this paper was to delineate the problems inherent in attempting to answer this question, and to present analyses intended to overcome these problems. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Background— In the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT), a randomized, double-blind, practice-based, active-control, comparative effectiveness trial in high-risk hypertensive participants, risk of new-onset heart failure (HF) was higher in the amlodipine (2.5–10 mg/d) and lisinopril (10–40 mg/d) arms compared with the chlorthalidone (12.5–25 mg/d) arm. Similar to other studies, mortality rates following new-onset HF were very high (≥50% at 5 years), and were similar across randomized treatment arms. After the randomized phase of the trial ended in 2002, outcomes were determined from administrative databases. Methods and Results— With the use of national databases, posttrial follow-up mortality through 2006 was obtained on participants who developed new-onset HF during the randomized (in-trial) phase of ALLHAT. Mean follow-up for the entire period was 8.9 years. Of 1761 participants with incident HF in-trial, 1348 died. Post-HF all-cause mortality was similar across treatment groups, with adjusted hazard ratios (95% confidence intervals) of 0.95 (0.81–1.12) and 1.05 (0.89–1.25), respectively, for amlodipine and lisinopril compared with chlorthalidone, and 10-year adjusted rates of 86%, 87%, and 83%, respectively. All-cause mortality rates were also similar among those with reduced ejection fractions (84%) and preserved ejection fractions (81%), with no significant differences by randomized treatment arm. Conclusions— Once HF develops, risk of death is high and consistent across randomized treatment groups. Measures to prevent the development of HF, especially blood pressure control, must be a priority if mortality associated with the development of HF is to be addressed. Clinical Trial Registration— http://www.clinicaltrials.gov . Unique identifier: NCT00000542.

Objectives MMP-9 and -12 function in tissue remodeling and may play roles in cardiovascular disease (CVD). We assessed associations of four MMP polymorphisms and three antihypertensive drugs with cardiovascular outcomes. Methods Hypertensives (n = 42,418) from a double-blind, randomized, clinical trial were randomized to chlorthalidone, amlodipine, lisinopril, or doxazosin treatment (mean follow up, 4.9 years). The primary outcome was coronary heart disease (CHD). Secondary outcomes included combined CHD, all CVD outcomes combined, stroke, heart failure (HF), and mortality. Genotype-treatment interactions were tested. Results There were 38,698 participants genotyped for at least one of the polymorphisms included here. For MMP9 R668Q (rs2274756), lower hazard ratios (HRs) were found for AA subjects for most outcomes when treated with chlorthalidone versus amlodipine (eg., CCHD: GG = 1.00, GA = 1.01, AA = 0.64; P = 0.038). For MMP9 R279Q (rs17576), modest pharmacogenetic findings were observed for combined CHD and the composite CVD outcome. For MMP12 N122S (rs652438), lower HRs were observed for CHD in subjects carrying at least one G allele and being treated with chlorthalidone versus lisinopril (CHD: AA = 1.07, AG = 0.80, GG = 0.49; P = 0.005). In the lisinopril-amlodipine comparison, higher HRs were observed for participants having at least one G allele at the MMP12 N122S locus (CHD: AA = 0.94, AG = 1.19, GG = 1.93; P = 0.041). For MMP12 −82A>G (rs2276109), no pharmacogenetic effect was found for the primary outcome, although lower HRs were observed for AA homozygotes in the chlorthalidone-amlodipine comparison for HF (P = 0.015). Conclusions We observed interactions between antihypertensive drugs and MMP9 and MMP12 for CHD and composite CVD. The data suggest that these genes may provide useful clinical information with respect to treatment decisions.

because both y = (x + 3)(2x + 1)(x 1) and y' = 2(x + 2)(3x 1) factor over the integers. Our attempt to give a systematic description of all such 'nice' cubics led to Diophantine equation (2) below, whose solution is well known. Our techniques give systematic methods for producing nice numbers for other problems as well. Although these problems have been investigated by several authors, [2], [6], [7], [8], [10], [13], the solutions have not been given a systematic and unified presentation. We attempt to do so here, in a way that allows the reader to construct additional examples at will. The first problem we are interested in is

Pharmacogenetic research has shown that genetic variation may influence statin responsiveness. Statins exert a variety of beneficial effects beyond lipid lowering, including antithrombotic effects, which contribute to the risk reduction of cardiovascular disease. Statins have been shown to influence the expression of coagulation factors II, V, VII, XII and XIII.Data from a large randomized clinical trial of pravastatin, designed to show efficacy relative to usual care, were used to investigate whether a pharmacogenetic effect of polymorphisms in genes coding for coagulation factors II, V, VII, XII and XIII is associated with reduced fatal coronary heart disease (CHD) and nonfatal myocardial infarction, combined CHD and all-cause mortality.The Genetics of Hypertension Associated Treatment is an ancillary study of the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial. The genotyped population in the lipid-lowering trial of Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial included 9624 participants randomly assigned to pravastatin or to usual care. The efficacy of pravastatin in reducing risk of all-cause mortality, CHD and nonfatal myocardial infarction and combined CHD, was compared among genotype strata by examining an interaction term in a proportional hazards model.None of the polymorphisms were associated with the clinical outcomes. For the F7 (-323) ins/del polymorphism there was no interaction with pravastatin for either outcome. For both the F5 Arg506Gln GA (rs6025) polymorphism and F7 Arg353Gln GA (rs6046) polymorphism there were no interactions with pravastatin in relation to all-cause mortality, but there were significant interactions with combined CHD [interaction hazard ratio = 1.33, 95% confidence interval (1.01-1.76) and interaction hazard ratio = 1.92, 95% confidence interval (1.00-3.65), respectively]. There were no interactions between the polymorphisms in the other coagulation genes and pravastatin in relation to any outcome.Polymorphisms in anticoagulation genes (F5 and F7) seem to modify the efficacy of pravastatin in reducing risk of cardiovascular events.

Specific causes of death were analyzed for 10,908 participants in the Hypertension Detection and Follow-up Program, to explore possible explanations for the observed excess 8.3-year mortality from all causes in hypertensives with low body mass. Although the cardiovascular mortality rate among men in the lowest decile of body mass (body mass index 21.96 or less) was 50% higher than that of men in the median class (body mass index 26.4-28.8), death rate for noncardiovascular deaths was more than 2 1/2 times higher in men with lean versus median body mass. The pattern was similar among women. Among noncardiovascular causes, striking differences in mortality rates between lean hypertensives and those of average body mass were observed for cirrhotic death (relative risk of 12+ in men and 11+ in women), for nonmalignant respiratory disease in men (relative risk of 7+), for violent death (both sexes), and for malignant neoplasms in men. Prevalence of smoking was almost twice as high in the lowest compared with the median body mass group; among the lean, excess deaths, particularly noncardiovascular deaths, were concentrated among smokers. Thus, male smokers in the lowest decile of body mass constituted only 3% of the study population, but contributed 8% of all deaths, 11% of all noncardiovascular deaths, and 22% of all cirrhotic deaths. A larger proportion of deaths occurred early in follow-up in the lean versus other hypertensives, suggesting occult disease among the lean at baseline. There was no evidence that more severe or treatment-resistant hypertension was present in or could explain excess mortality among the hypertensives with low body mass. The inference from the findings is not that overweight is protective for hypertensives nor that excess risk is due to leanness per se. Rather, a reasonable hypothesis, particularly from findings on specific causes of death, is that excess mortality in lean hypertensives is due to deleterious lifestyles, particularly smoking and excess alcohol intake, contributing to both leanness and risk of death.

The intensified class war in the USSR has pushed the right wing of the professorate into the camp of counter-revolution. The reactionary professoriate has been at the head of all the recently uncovered wrecking organizations and counter-revolutionary parties. Thanks go to the brilliant efforts of the OGPU [predecessor to the KGB] for uncovering the crimes of a whole series of scientific bonzes who have known how to conceal themselves artfully behind various masks--from cold loyalty to a loudly advertised warm attachment to Soviet power. Active counter-revolutionaries have appeared even among mathematicians. Professor Egorov was arrested for participation in a counter-revolutionary organization. He is the acknowledged leader of the Moscow school of mathematics, president of the Mathematical Society, former director of the Mathematical Institute and the candidate of Moscow mathematics in the Academy of Sciences. This same Egorov is the preserver of academic traditions, against which the proletarian student body had already undertaken struggle. Nearly unanimously the Moscow mathematicians came to his defense. There has been a full clarification of the role of academic traditions in our nation, traditions coming from pre-revolutionary Russia, in the promotion of counter-revolutionary and restorationist attitudes among scientists. By the preaching of "pure science," by the renunciation of the class struggle among scientific workers, by the preservation of caste prejudices among scientists, the counter-revolutionaries have preserved for themselves the leadership positions in scientific organizations. "Shakhty affair," in which a large group of engineers was convicted of sabotage or "wrecking" in a widely publicized show trial. Thousands of engineers were arrested. Attacks were made on the Academy of Sciences, the most prestigious scientific institution in the country. Over the next two years, more than one hundred workers in the Academy were arrested, including six academicians. The Academy was accused, among other things, of containing an anti-Soviet religious and philosophical circle [15, p. 267]. Appeals were issued to students and faculty at academic and research institutions across the country, calling on those who sympathized with the revolution to expose "reactionaries," "counter-revolutionaries,"