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Objective: We evaluated longitudinal rates, risk factors, and costs of superficial and deep incisional surgical-site infection (SSI) 6 months after primary total knee arthroplasty (pTKA) and revision total knee arthroplasty (rTKA). Methods: Patients were identified from January 1, 2016 through March 31, 2018, in the IBM MarketScan administrative claims databases. Kaplan-Meier survival curves evaluated time to SSI over 6 months. Cox proportional hazard models evaluated SSI risk factors. Generalized linear models estimated SSI costs up to 12 months. Results: Of the 26,097 pTKA patients analyzed (mean age, 61.6 years; SD, 9.2; 61.4% female; 60.4% commercial insurance), 0.65% (95% CI, 0.56%–0.75%) presented with a deep incisional SSI and 0.82% (95% CI, 0.71%–0.93%) with a superficial incisional SSI. Also, 3,663 patients who had rTKA (mean age, 60.9 years; SD, 10.1; 60.6% female; 53.0% commercial insurance), 10.44% (95% CI, 9.36%–11.51%) presented with a deep incisional SSI and 2.60% (95% CI, 2.07%–3.13%) presented with a superficial incisional SSI. Infections were associated with male sex and multiple patient comorbidities including chronic pulmonary disease, pulmonary circulatory disorders, fluid and electrolyte disorders, malnutrition, drug abuse, and depression. Adjusted average all-cause incremental commercial cost ranged from $14,298 to $29,176 and from $41,381 to 59,491 for superficial and deep incisional SSI, respectively. Conclusions: SSI occurred most frequently following rTKA and among patients with pulmonary comorbidities and depression. The incremental costs associated with SSI following TKA were substantial.

Background:Spinal fusion surgery (SFS) is one of the most common operations in the United States, >450,000 SFSs are performed annually, incurring annual costs >$10 billion.Objectives:We used a nationwide longitudinal database to accurately assess incidence and payments associated with management of postoperative infection following SFS.Methods:We conducted a retrospective, observational cohort analysis of 210,019 patients undergoing SFS from 2014 to 2018 using IBM MarketScan commercial and Medicaid–Medicare databases. We assessed rates of superficial/deep incisional SSIs, from 3 to 180 days after surgery using Cox proportional hazard regression models. To evaluate adjusted payments for patients with/without SSIs, adjusted for inflation to 2019 Consumer Price Index, we used generalized linear regression models with log-link and γ distribution.Results:Overall, 6.6% of patients experienced an SSI, 1.7% superficial SSIs and 4.9% deep-incisional SSIs, with a median of 44 days to presentation for superficial SSIs and 28 days for deep-incisional SSIs. Selective risk factors included surgical approach, admission type, payer, and higher comorbidity score. Postoperative incremental commercial payments for patients with superficial SSI were $20,800 at 6 months, $26,937 at 12 months, and $32,821 at 24 months; incremental payments for patients with deep-incisional SSI were $59,766 at 6 months, $74,875 at 12 months, and $93,741 at 24 months. Corresponding incremental Medicare payments for patients with superficial incisional at 6, 12, 24-months were $11,044, $17,967, and $24,096; while payments for patients with deep-infection were: $48,662, $53,757, and $73,803 at 6, 12, 24-months.Conclusions:We identified a 4.9% rate of deep infection following SFS, with substantial payer burden. The findings suggest that the implementation of robust evidence-based surgical-care bundles to mitigate postoperative SFS infection is warranted.

Standard manual cleaning and disinfection practices are often inadequate. Persistent contamination in the environment poses an infection risk that may be mitigated by no-touch disinfection systems. This study evaluates the efficacy of dry hydrogen peroxide (DHP) on microbial air and surface contamination as an adjunct to routine cleaning and disinfection in a large urban hospital.Surface samples were collected in five different hospital units, two pediatric and three adult, after manual cleaning on multiple days before and after DHP implementation. Air samples were also collected in each unit pre- and post-DHP use. Data outcomes were reported as colony forming units (CFU) with species identification.The overall mean surface microbial burden was reduced by 96.5 percent for all units post-DHP compared to baseline (P0.001), with the greatest reductions achieved on privacy curtains (99.5 %). Mean microbial air sample counts were also reduced post-DHP compared to pre-DHP.This study demonstrates that DHP was effective in reducing both air and surface microbial contamination in a variety of settings within a large, tertiary care hospital.

Background Colorectal surgical procedures place substantial burden on health care systems because of the high complication risk, of surgical site infections in particular. The risk of surgical site infection after colorectal surgery is one of the highest of any surgical specialty. Objective The purpose of this study was to determine the incidence, cost of infections after colorectal surgery, and potential economic benefit of using antimicrobial wound closure to improve patient outcomes. Design Retrospective observational cohort analysis and probabilistic cost analysis were performed. Settings The analysis utilized a database for colorectal patients in the United States between 2014 and 2018. Patients A total of 107,665 patients who underwent colorectal surgery were included in the analysis. Main outcome measures Rate of infection was together with identified between 3 and 180 days postoperatively, infection risk factors, infection costs over 24 months postoperatively by payer type (commercial payers and Medicare), and potential costs avoided per patient by using an evidence-based innovative wound closure technology. Results Surgical site infections were diagnosed postoperatively in 23.9% of patients (4.0% superficial incisional and 19.9% deep incisional/organ space). Risk factors significantly increased risk of deep incisional/organ-space infection and included several patient comorbidities, age, payer type, and admission type. After 12 months, adjusted increased costs associated with infections ranged from $36,429 to $144,809 for commercial payers and $17,551 to $102,280 for Medicare, depending on surgical site infection type. Adjusted incremental costs continued to increase over a 24-month study period for both payers. Use of antimicrobial wound closure for colorectal surgery is projected to significantly reduce median payer costs by $809 to $1170 per patient compared with traditional wound closure. Limitations The inherent biases associated with retrospective databases limited this study. Conclusions Surgical site infection cost burden was found to be higher than previously reported, with payer costs escalating over a 24-month postoperative period. Cost analysis results for adopting antimicrobial wound closure aligns with previous evidence-based studies, suggesting a fiscal benefit for its use as a component of a comprehensive evidence-based surgical care bundle for reducing the risk of infection. See Video Abstract at http://links.lww.com/DCR/B358. EVALUACION DEL RIESGO Y LA CARGA ECONOMICA DE LA INFECCION DEL SITIO QUIRURGICO DESPUES DE UNA CIRUGIA COLORRECTAL UTILIZANDO UNA BASE DE DATOS LONGITUDINAL DE EE.UU.: ?EXISTE UN PAPEL PARA LA TECNOLOGIA INNOVADORA DE CIERRE DE HERIDAS ANTIMICROBIANAS PARA REDUCIR EL RIESGO DE INFECCION?: Los procedimientos quirurgicos colorrectales suponen una carga considerable para los sistemas de salud debido al alto riesgo de complicaciones, particularmente las infecciones del sitio quirurgico. El riesgo de infeccion posoperatoria del sitio quirurgico colorrectal es uno de los mas altos de cualquier especialidad quirurgica.El proposito de este estudio fue determinar la incidencia, el costo de las infecciones despues de la cirugia colorrectal y el beneficio economico potencial del uso del cierre de la herida con antimicrobianos para mejorar los resultados de los pacientes.Analisis retrospectivo de cohorte observacional y analisis de costo probabilistico.El analisis utilizo la base de datos para pacientes colorrectales en los Estados Unidos entre 2014 y 2018.Un total de 107,665 pacientes sometidos a cirugia colorrectal.Se identifico una tasa de infeccion entre 3 y 180 dias despues de la operacion, los factores de riesgo de infeccion, los costos de infeccion durante 24 meses posteriores a la operacion por tipo de pagador (pagadores comerciales y Medicare), y los costos potenciales evitados por paciente utilizando una tecnologia innovadora de cierre de heridas basada en evidencias.Infecciones del sitio quirurgico, diagnosticadas postoperatoriamente en el 23,9% de los pacientes (4,0% incisional superficial y 19,9% incisional profunda / espacio organico). Los factores de riesgo aumentaron significativamente el riesgo de infeccion profunda por incision / espacio organico e incluyeron comorbilidades selectivas del paciente, edad, tipo de pagador y tipo de admision. Despues de 12 meses, el aumento de los costos asociados con las infecciones vario de $ 36,429 a $ 144,809 para los pagadores comerciales y de $ 17,551 a $ 102,280 para Medicare, segun el tipo de infeccion del sitio quirurgico. Los costos incrementales ajustados continuaron aumentando durante un periodo de estudio de 24 meses para ambos pagadores. Se preve que el uso del cierre antimicrobiano de la herida para la cirugia colorrectal reducira significativamente los costos medios del pagador en $ 809- $ 1,170 por paciente en comparacion con el cierre tradicional de la herida.Los sesgos inherentes asociados a las bases de datos retrospectivas limitaron este estudio.Se encontro que la carga del costo de la infeccion del sitio quirurgico es mayor que la reportada previamente, y los costos del pagador aumentaron durante un periodo postoperatorio de 24 meses. Los resultados del analisis de costos para la adopcion del cierre de heridas antimicrobianas se alinean con estudios previos basados en evidencia, lo que sugiere un beneficio fiscal para su uso como componente de un paquete integral de atencion quirurgica basada en evidencia para reducir el riesgo de infeccion. Consulte Video Resumen en http://links.lww.com/DCR/B358.

When patients with significant comorbid risk factors undergo surgical procedures, they are at high risk for development of post-operative infectious complications, including surgical site infection (SSI). Obese patients characteristically fit within this risk category, and thus it is of paramount importance to establish evidence-based strategies to mitigate these infectious complications. The use of an antimicrobial prophylactic regimen is a well-established practice and is based on the principle of the "right drug, at the right time, in the right place." The subject of this article is to review the current evidence-based data on antimicrobial prophylaxis in obese patients undergoing bariatric surgical procedures.

Fifty years of evolution in infection prevention and control programs have involved significant accomplishments related to clinical practices, methodologies, and technology. However, regulatory mandates, and resource and research limitations, coupled with emerging infection threats such as the COVID-19 pandemic, present considerable challenges for infection preventionists. This article provides guidance and recommendations in 14 key areas. These interventions should be considered for implementation by United States health care facilities in the near future.

Background Surgical site infection is a major postoperative complication after surgical procedures. The effectiveness of postoperative antimicrobial dressings in reducing surgical site infections is unclear and limited information is available on the efficacy of chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG)-impregnated postoperative dressings. Methods A pilot study was conducted to examine the efficacy of an innovative CHG-impregnated postoperative dressing in reducing the burden of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in an in vivo porcine, incisional-wound model. Sutured incisional wounds were contaminated with MRSA and then covered with a CHG wound dressing, a placebo control, or a nonantimicrobial gauze. The surviving MRSA population was quantitatively cultured 3 days postprocedure. Results MRSA was not recovered from any of the 8 wounds that were treated with the CHG dressing (limit of detection, approximately 1.7 log10 colony-forming units [cfu]/g tissue). In contrast, the average microbial recovery from wounds treated with the placebo dressing was 4.2 log10 cfu/g and the average microbial recovery from wounds treated with the gauze dressing was 3.2 log10 cfu/g. Conclusions An innovative CHG dressing provided significant antimicrobial activity against MRSA contaminating a surgical wound in a porcine, incisional-wound model. Future clinical studies are needed to assess the efficacy of the CHG dressing to reduce the bacterial burden in postoperative wounds of surgical patients.

Surgical site infection posthysterectomy has significant impact on patient morbidity, mortality, and health care costs. This study evaluates incidence, risk factors, and total payer costs of surgical site infection after hysterectomy in commercial, Medicare, and Medicaid populations using a nationwide claims database.IBM MarketScan databases identified women having hysterectomy between 2014 and 2018. Deep-incisional/organ space (DI/OS) and superficial infections were identified over 6 months postoperatively with risk factors and direct infection-associated payments by insurance type over a 24-month postoperative period.Analysis identified 141,869 women; 7.8% Medicaid, 5.8% Medicare, and 3.9% commercially insured women developed deep-incisional/organ space surgical site infection, whereas 3.9% Medicaid, 3.2% Medicare, and 2.1% commercially insured women developed superficial infection within 6 months of index procedure. Deep-incisional/organ space risk factors were open approach (hazard ratio, 1.6; 95% confidence interval, 1.5-1.8) and payer type (Medicaid versus commercial [hazard ratio, 1.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.3-1.5]); superficial risk factors were payer type (Medicaid versus commercial [hazard ratio, 1.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.3-1.6]) and solid tumor without metastasis (hazard ratio, 1.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.3-1.6). Highest payments occurred with Medicare ($44,436, 95% confidence interval: $33,967-$56,422) followed by commercial ($27,140, 95% confidence interval: $25,990-$28,317) and Medicaid patients ($17,265, 95% confidence interval: $15,247-$19,426) for deep-incisional/organ space infection at 24-month posthysterectomy.Real-world cost of managing superficial, deep-incisional/organ space infection after hysterectomy was significantly higher than previously reported. Surgical approach, payer type, and comorbid risk factors contributed to increased risk of infection and economic burden. Medicaid patients experienced the highest risk of infection, followed by Medicare patients. The study suggests adoption of a robust evidence-based surgical care bundle to mitigate risk of surgical site infection and economic burden is warranted.

Surgical site infections occur in at least 2%-4% of all patients. A proposed, risk-reduction strategy has been the use of adhesive, plastic incise drapes to reduce the risk of surgical site infection. The present investigation reports the efficacy of a novel chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) adhesive surgical drape to reduce the risk of horizontal bacterial migration into surgical wounds, using a porcine model of wound contamination.Using a standardized inoculum, and a predetermined randomization schedule, a porcine model was used to assess the efficacy of a CHG-impregnated adhesive drape to prevent MRSA contamination of a simulated surgical wound and intact skin surface compared with an iodophor-impregnated incise drape and a nonantimicrobial incise drape in 0, 1, and 4-hour surgeries.MRSA recovery from incisional wounds was lowest in sites treated with the CHG drape. The difference was statistically significant (P.001) at all time points, both between the CHG drape and the nonantimicrobial control as well as between the CHG and iodophor drapes. Mean MRSA recovery from wounds treated with iodophor drapes was slightly lower than nonantimicrobial drapes. The difference was not statistically significant at 0- or 1-hour (P = .065 and P = .089, respectively), however the differences were significant at 4-hours (P = .024).These preliminary results show that a novel CHG surgical incise drape reduced MRSA contamination of a surgical incision site and showed significant antimicrobial activity against contamination of intact skin surfaces compared with an iodophor- impregnated drape.A novel CHG surgical drape was effective in significantly reducing MRSA contamination in an incisional wound model. Future studies are needed to assess its clinical efficacy.

Accurate and rapid antimicrobial susceptibility testing with pathogen identification in bloodstream infections is critical to life results for early sepsis intervention. Advancements in rapid diagnostics have shortened the time to results from days to hours and have had positive effects on clinical outcomes and on efforts to combat antimicrobial resistance when paired with robust antimicrobial stewardship programs. This article provides infection preventionists with a working knowledge of available rapid diagnostics for bloodstream infections.

The global push to combat the problem of antimicrobial resistance has led to the development of antimicrobial stewardship programs (ASPs), which were recently mandated by The Joint Commission and the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. However, the use of topical antibiotics in the open surgical wound is often not monitored by these programs nor is it subject to any evidence-based standardization of care. Survey results indicate that the practice of using topical antibiotics intraoperatively, in both irrigation fluids and powders, is widespread. Given the risks inherent in their use and the lack of evidence supporting it, the practice should be monitored as a core part of ASPs, and alternative agents, such as antiseptics, should be considered.

Showering preoperatively with chlorhexidine gluconate is an issue that continues to promote debate; however, many studies demonstrate evidence of surgical site infection risk reduction. Methodological issues have been present in many of the studies used to compile guidelines and there has been a lack of standardisation of processes for application of the active agents in papers pre-2009. This review and commentary paper highlights the potential for enhancing compliance with this low-risk and low-cost intervention and provides some guidance for enhancing implementation of preoperative showering with both chlorhexidine in solution and impregnated wipes.

Cross-contamination from inanimate surfaces can play a significant role in intensive care unit (ICU)-acquired colonization and infection. This study assessed an innovative isopropyl alcohol/organofunctional silane solution (IOS) to reduce microbial contamination on inert surfaces in a medical ICU.Baseline adenosine triphosphate bioluminescence testing (ABT)-measurements (N = 200) were obtained on designated inert ICU surfaces followed by IOS treatment. At 1 and 6 weeks, selective surfaces were randomized to either IOS-treated or nontreated controls for comparison using ABT (N = 400) and RODAC colony counts (N = 400). An ABT value of ≤45 relative light units (RLU) was designated as "clean," whereas45 was assessed as "dirty."Mean RLU baseline values ranged from 870.3 (computer keyboard) to 201.6 (bed table), and 97.5% of surfaces were assessed as "dirty." At 6 weeks, the mean RLU of surfaces treated with IOS ranged from 31.7 (physician workstation) to 51.5 (telephone handpiece), whereas values on comparative control surfaces were 717.3 and 643.7, respectively (P.001). Some 95.5% of RODAC cultures from IOS-treated sites at 6 weeks were negative, whereas 90.5% of nontreated sites were culture-positive, yielding multiple isolates including multidrug-resistant gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria.IOS-treated surfaces recorded significantly lower RLU and RODAC colony counts compared with controls (P.001). A single application of IOS resulted in a persistent antimicrobial activity on inert ICU surfaces over the 6-week study interval.

The standard of practice for perioperative hair removal is largely based on research that is outdated and underpowered. Although there is evidence to support the practice of clipping instead of shaving, current recommendations are to remove hair only when absolutely necessary. Human hair is bacteria-laden and challenging to disinfect, and clipping can be a safe method of hair removal that does not damage the skin. This article considers the removal of hair at the incision site with clippers, either before the patient enters the OR or in a manner that completely contains clipped hair, for every procedure, not just when absolutely necessary. There have been only two studies to date comparing clipping with no hair removal; more research is needed on this subject.

Background Despite several randomized trials, systematic reviews and meta-analyses that have demonstrated the effectiveness of antimicrobial (triclosan-coated or -impregnated) sutures (TCS), the clinical and economic impact of using these sutures compared with conventional non-antimicrobial-coated absorbable sutures (NCS) remains poorly documented. Methods An independent systematic review and meta-analysis of all published evidence from January 2005 to September 2016 comparing TCS with NCS was conducted. Surgical-site infection (SSI) was the primary outcome. The results of the meta-analysis were used in a decision-tree deterministic and stochastic cost model, using the National Health Service (NHS England)-based cost of inpatient admissions for infections and differential costs of TCSversus NCS. Results Thirty-four studies were included in the final assessment from an initial 163 identified citations; 20 of 34 studies were randomized, and 17 of 34 reported blinding of physicians and assessors. Using a random-effects model, the odds ratio for SSI in the TCS compared with NCS control groups was statistically significant (odds ratio 0·61, 95 per cent c.i. 0·52 to 0·73; P < 0·001). There was significant heterogeneity (I2 = 49 per cent). Using random-effects event estimates of SSI for TCS and NCS for each individual wound type, the mean savings per surgical procedure from using antimicrobial sutures were significant: £91·25 (90 per cent c.i. 49·62 to 142·76) (€105·09 (57·15 to 164·41); exchange rate 15 November 2016) across all wound types. Conclusion The reviewed literature suggested that antimicrobial sutures may result in significant savings across various surgical wound types.

Objective: The global impact of surgical site infections (SSIs) on health-care systems is considerable: many are related to the formation of a microbial biofilm. Biofilm plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of implantable device-related infections and are also important in persistent postoperative skin and soft tissue wound infections. Method: PubMed and OVID databases were searched for relevant articles regarding biofilm-associated infection in surgery, including epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment and management. Results: Biofilm-associated infections increase the use of health-care resources, prolong length of stay, increase cost of antibiotic therapy, result in additional surgical revisions and extend rehabilitation after discharge from health care. Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis are the most common isolates recovered from device-related infections. Early infection occurs within two weeks of implantation and is associated with intraoperative wound contamination; late-onset infections are often occult prolonging recognition by weeks, months and in some cases, years. Biofilm is a physical barrier against antibodies and granulocytic cell populations which may also impede the penetration of antibiotics. The ideal strategy for preventing biofilm-associated SSI is to prevent intraoperative contamination through compliance with effective surgical care bundles. Management of postoperative biofilm-associated infections involves surgical debridement followed by irrigation with antimicrobial agents and removal of infected devices, followed by insertion of antimicrobial adjuncts such as antimicrobial spacers, beads or sutures together with selective therapeutic agents that penetrate the mature biofilm. Conclusion: Biofilm-associated infections are a significant source of postoperative morbidity and mortality. Appropriate interventional strategies are warranted to reduce the risk of intraoperative contamination. Declaration of interest: The authors have no conflicts.

Staphylococcus aureus has been recognized as a major microbial pathogen for over 100 y, having the capacity to produce a variety of suppurative and toxigenic disease processes. Many of these infections are life-threatening, with particularly enhanced virulence in hospitalized patients with selective risk factors. Strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) have rapidly spread throughout the healthcare environment such that approximately 20% of S. aureus isolates recovered from surgical site infections are methicillin-resistant, (although this is now reducing following national screening and suppression programs and high impact interventions).Widespread nasal screening to identify MRSA colonization in surgical patients prior to admission are controversial, but selective, evidence-based studies have documented a reduction of surgical site infection (SSI) after screening and suppression.Culture methods used to identify MRSA colonization involve selective, differential, or chromogenic media. These methods are the least expensive, but turnaround time is 24-48 h. Although real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) technology provides rapid turnaround (1-2 h) with exceptional testing accuracy, the costs can range from three to 10 times more than conventional culture methodology. Topical mupirocin, with or without pre-operative chlorhexidine showers or skin wipes, is the current "gold-standard" for nasal decolonization, but inappropriate use of mupirocin is associated with increasing staphylococcal resistance.Selection of an effective active universal or targeted surveillance strategy should be based upon the relative risk of MSSA or MRSA surgical site infection in patients undergoing orthopedic or cardiothoracic device related surgical procedures.

The frequency of primary and revision total knee and hip replacements (pTKRs, rTKRs, pTHRs, and rTHRs, respectively) is increasing in the United States due to demographic changes. This study evaluated the impact of preoperative patient and clinical factors on the risk of surgical site infection (SSI) within the 90-day period after primary and revision total joint replacements (TJR).A retrospective observational cohort study was designed using the IBM MarketScan and Medicare databases, 2009-2015. Thirty-four comorbidities were assessed for all patients, and multivariable logistic regression models were used to evaluate factors associated with higher odds of SSI after adjusting for other patient and clinical preoperative conditions.The study included a total of 335,134 TKRs and 163,547 THRs. SSI rates were 15.6% and 8.6% after rTKR and rTHR, respectively, compared with 2.1% and 2.1% for pTKR and pTHR, respectively. Comorbidities with the greatest adjusted effect on SSI across all TJRs were acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (odds ratio [OR], 1.58; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.06-2.34; P = .0232), paralysis (OR, 1.56; 95% CI, 1.26-1.94; P.0001), coagulopathy (OR, 1.48; 95% CI, 1.36-1.62; P.0001), metastatic cancer (1.48; 95% CI, 1.24-1.76; P.0001), and congestive heart failure (OR, 1.39; 95% CI, 1.30-1.49; P.0001).SSI occurred most commonly among patients after revision TJR and were related to many patient comorbidities, including diabetes, congestive heart failure, and coagulopathy, which were significantly associated with a higher risk of SSI after TJR.

A surgical site infection (SSI) can occur at several anatomic sites related to a surgical procedure: Superficial or deep incisional or organ/space. The SSIs are the leading cause of health-care-associated infection (HAI) in industrialized Western nations. Patients in whom an SSI develops require longer hospitalization, incur significantly greater treatment costs and reduction in quality of life, and after selective surgical procedures experience higher mortality rates. Effective infection prevention and control requires the concept of the SSI care bundle, which is composed of a defined number of evidence-based interventional strategies, because of the many risk factors that can contribute to the development of an SSI. Intra-operative irrigation has been a mainstay of surgical practice for well over 100 years, but lacks standardization and compelling evidence-based data to validate its efficacy. In an era of antibiotic stewardship, with a widespread prevalence of bacterial resistance to multiple antibiotic agents, there has emerged an interest in using intra-operative antiseptic irrigation to reduce microbial contamination in the surgical site before closure and possibly reduce the need for antibiotic agents. This approach has gained added appeal in an era of biomedical device implantation, especially with the recognition that most, if not all, device-related infections are associated with biofilm formation. This review focuses on the limited, evidence-based rationale for the use of antiseptic agents as an effective risk reduction strategy for prevention of SSIs.

Background During the early era of arthroplasty, the concept of ultraclean operating room (OR) was introduced based on the principle that the number of airborne particles in the OR directly influences incidence of device-related infections. The hypothesis of this pilot study was that use of an innovative UV-C air decontamination technology would lead to a reduction in the incidence of periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) following total joint arthroplasty. Methods A retrospective, observational, surveillance study was conducted with a consecutive series of patients who underwent total joint arthroplasty (n = 496) between January 2016 and August 2017. All perioperative and postoperative care protocols were identical for both groups, only study variable was that in 231 arthroplasty patients (OR B), an innovative supplemental UV-C air decontamination technology was used, whereas in the remaining 265 patients, arthroplasty was performed with standard turbulent HVAC (OR A). Results There was no significant difference between patient groups regarding age, body mass index, diabetes diagnosis, smoking status, length of surgery, or revision status. The rate of PJI was documented to be 1.9% in the turbulent air group, and no infections were documented in the cohorts operated under UV-C air decontamination, which was statistically significant (P Conclusion While PJI is multifactorial in nature, the present retrospective pilot study suggests that use of an intraoperative supplemental air decontamination significantly reduced the overall risk of PJI. The findings of this study are encouraging and should be examined in a larger-scale, prospective, multicenter study.

The current practice of perioperative hair removal reflects research-driven changes designed to minimize the risk of surgical wound infection. An aspect of the practice which has received less scrutiny is the clean-up of the clipped hair. This process is critical. The loose fibers represent a potential infection risk because of the micro-organisms they can carry, but their clean-up can pose a logistical problem because of the time required to remove them. Research has demonstrated that the most commonly employed means of clean-up, the use of adhesive tape or sticky mitts, can be both ineffective and time-consuming in addition to posing an infection risk from cross-contamination. Recently published research evaluating surgical clippers fitted with a vacuum-assisted hair collection device highlights the potential for significant practice improvement in the perioperative hair removal clean-up process. These improvements include not only further mitigation of potential infection risk but also substantial OR time and cost savings.

any health care facilities have incorporated an antiseptic skin cleansing protocol, often referred to as preoperative bathing and cleansing, to reduce the endogenous microbial burden on the skin of patients undergoing elective surgery, with the aim of reducing the risk of surgical site infections (SSIs). According to a recent study by Injean et al, 91% of all facilities that perform coronary artery bypass surgery in California have a standardized preoperative bathing and cleansing protocol for patients. Historically, this practice has been endorsed by national and international organizations, such as the Hospital Infection Control Practice Advisory Committee and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology (APIC), AORN, the Institute for Healthcare Improvement (IHI), and the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE), which recommend bathing and/or cleansing with an antiseptic agent before surgery as a component of a broader strategy to reduce SSIs. The 2008 Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA)/ Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA)/Surgical Infection Society (SIS) strategies to prevent SSIs in acute care hospitals declined to recommend a specific application policy regarding selection of an antiseptic agent for preoperative bathing but acknowledged that the (maximal) antiseptic benefits of chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) are dependent on achieving adequate skin surface concentrations.

Infection is the likeliest single cause of delayed healing in healing of chronic open wounds by secondary intention. If neglected it can progress from contamination to colonization and local infection through to systemic infection, sepsis and multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, and it can be life-threatening. Infection in chronic wounds is not as easy to define as in acute wounds, and is complicated by the presence of biofilms. There is, as yet, no diagnostic for biofilm presence, but it contributes to excessive inflammation - through excessive and prolonged stimulation of nitric oxide, inflammatory cytokines and free radicals - and activation of immune complexes and complement, leading to a delay in healing. Control of biofilm is a key part of chronic wound management. Maintenance debridement and use of topical antimicrobials (antiseptics) are more effective than antibiotics, which should be reserved for treating spreading local and systemic infection. The continuing rise of antimicrobial resistance to antibiotics should lead us to reserve their use for these indications, as no new effective antibiotics are in the research pipeline. Antiseptics are effective through many mechanisms of action, unlike antibiotics, which makes the development of resistance to them unlikely. There is little evidence to support the theoretical risk that antiseptics select resistant pathogens. However, the use of antiseptic dressings for preventing and managing biofilm and infection progression needs further research involving well-designed, randomized controlled trials.

Summary Healthcare workers (HCWs) wear uniforms, such as scrubs and lab coats, for several reasons: (1) to identify themselves as hospital personnel to their patients and employers; (2) to display professionalism; and (3) to provide barrier protection for street clothes from unexpected exposures during the work shift. A growing body of evidence suggests that HCWs' apparel is often contaminated with micro-organisms or pathogens that can cause infections or illnesses. While the majority of scrubs and lab coats are still made of the same traditional textiles used to make street clothes, new evidence suggests that current innovative textiles function as an engineering control, minimizing the acquisition, retention and transmission of infectious pathogens by reducing the levels of bioburden and microbial sustainability. This paper summarizes recent literature on the role of apparel worn in healthcare settings in the acquisition and transmission of healthcare-associated pathogens. It proposes solutions or technological interventions that can reduce the risk of transmission of micro-organisms that are associated with the healthcare environment. Healthcare apparel is the emerging frontier in epidemiologically important environmental surfaces.

INTRODUCTION Healthcare associated infections (HCAIs) are falling following widespread and enforced introduction of guidelines, particularly those that have addressed antibiotic resistant pathogens such as methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus or emergent pathogens such as Clostridium difficile, but no such decline has been seen in the incidence of surgical site infection (SSI), either in the UK, the EU or the US. SSI is one of the HCAIs, which are all avoidable complications of a surgical patient’s pathway through both nosocomial and community care. METHODS This report is based on a meeting held at The Royal College of Surgeons of England on 21 July 2016. Using PubMed, members of the panel reviewed the current use of antiseptics and antimicrobial sutures in their specialties to prevent SSI. FINDINGS The group agreed that wider use of antiseptics in surgical practice may help in reducing reliance on antibiotics in infection prevention and control, especially in the perioperative period of open elective colorectal, hepatobiliary and cardiac operative procedures. The wider use of antiseptics includes preoperative showering, promotion of hand hygiene, (including the appropriate use of surgical gloves), preoperative skin preparation (including management of hair removal), antimicrobial sutures and the management of dehisced surgical wounds after infection. The meeting placed emphasis on the level I evidence that supports the use of antimicrobial sutures, particularly in surgical procedures after which the SSI rate is high (colorectal and hepatobiliary surgery) or when a SSI can be life threatening even when the rate of SSI is low (cardiac surgery).

In the modern operating room (OR), traditional surgical mask, frequent air exchanges, and architectural barriers are viewed as effective in reducing airborne microbial populations. Intraoperative sampling of airborne particulates is rarely performed in the OR because of technical difficulties associated with sampling methodologies and a common belief that airborne contamination is infrequently associated with surgical site infections (SSIs). Recent studies suggest that viable airborne particulates are readily disseminated throughout the OR, placing patients at risk for postoperative SSI. In 2017, virtually all surgical disciplines are engaged in the implantation of selective biomedical devices, and these implants have been documented to be at high risk for intraoperative contamination. Approximately 1.2 million arthroplasties are performed annually in the United States, and that number is expected to increase to 3.8 million by the year 2030. The incidence of periprosthetic joint infection is perceived to be low (

ObjectiveThe Surgical Care Improvement Project (SCIP) is a national initiative to reduce surgical complications, including postoperative surgical site infection (SSI), through protocol-driven antibiotic usage. This study aimed to determine the effect SCIP guidelines have had on in-hospital SSIs after open vascular procedures.MethodsThe Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) was retrospectively analyzed using International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, diagnosis codes to capture SSIs in hospital patients who underwent elective carotid endarterectomy, elective open repair of an abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA), and peripheral bypass. The pre-SCIP era was defined as 2000 to 2005 and post-SCIP was defined as 2007 to 2010. The year 2006 was excluded because this was the transition year in which the SCIP guidelines were implemented. Analysis of variance and χ2 testing were used for statistical analysis.ResultsThe rate of SSI in the pre-SCIP era was 2.2% compared with 2.3% for carotid endarterectomy (P = .06). For peripheral bypass, both in the pre- and post-SCIP era, infection rates were 0.1% (P = .22). For open, elective AAA, the rate of infection in the post-SCIP era increased significantly to 1.4% from 1.0% in the pre-SCIP era (P < .001). Demographics and in-hospital mortality did not differ significantly between the groups.ConclusionsImplementation of SCIP guidelines has made no significant effect on the incidence of in-hospital SSIs in open vascular operations; rather, an increase in SSI rates in open AAA repairs was observed. Patient-centered, bundled approaches to care, rather than current SCIP practices, may further decrease SSI rates in vascular patients undergoing open procedures.

Pathogens are inherently present in thesurgical setting, and several significant health careeassociated pathogens can be transferred from pa-tient to patient, from health care worker to patientor vice versa, and from surfaces to patients orhealth care workers and cause surgical site in-fections (SSIs). These pathogens (eg, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus [MRSA], S aureus,vancomycin-resistant enterococci, Acinetobacterspecies) may survive on environmental surfaces forweeks or months.

Surgical site infections (SSIs) are probably the most preventable of the health care-associated infections. Despite the widespread international introduction of level I evidence-based guidelines for the prevention of SSIs, such as that of the National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE) in the UK and the surgical care improvement project (SCIP) of the USA, SSI rates have not measurably fallen. The care bundle approach is an accepted method of packaging best, evidence-based measures into routine care for all patients and, common to many guidelines for the prevention of SSI, includes methods for preoperative removal of hair (where appropriate), rational antibiotic prophylaxis, avoidance of perioperative hypothermia, management of perioperative blood glucose and effective skin preparation. Reasons for poor compliance with care bundles are not clear and have not matched the wide uptake and perceived benefit of the WHO ‘Safe Surgery Saves Lives’ checklist. Recommendations include the need for further research and continuous updating of guidelines; comprehensive surveillance, using validated definitions that facilitate benchmarking of anonymised surgeon-specific SSI rates; assurance that incorporation of checklists and care bundles has taken place; the development of effective communication strategies for all health care providers and those who commission services and comprehensive information for patients.

The inappropriate use and overuse of antibiotics, together with the demographic changes of an ageing population, chronic diseases such as diabetes mellitus, increased patient contact with healthcare facilities, high bed occupancy rates and the increase in surgical procedures, have all contributed to the rise in prevalence of Healthcare Associated Infections. These are attributable to selection and emergence of multi-resistant organisms. Additionally, there is evidence that this surveillance programme considerably underestimates true rates of SSI. Strategies for prevention of SSIs are still in development and both MSSA and MRSA surveillance/suppression are likely to be considered as a plausible strategy for identifying at-risk patient prior to surgery, but a pertinent question remains: which surgical patients are likely to benefit most from this intervention?

Background It has been estimated that 750,000 to 1 million surgical-site infections (SSIs) occur in the United States each year, causing substantial morbidity and mortality. Triclosan-coated sutures were developed as an adjunctive strategy for SSI risk reduction, but a recently published systematic literature review and meta-analysis suggested that no clinical benefit is associated with this technology. However, that study was hampered by poor selection of available randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and low patient numbers. The current systematic review involves 13 randomized, international RCTs, totaling 3,568 surgical patients. Methods A systematic literature search was performed on PubMed, Embase/Medline, Cochrane database group (Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Health Economic Evaluations Database/Database of Health Technology Assessments), and www.clinicaltrials.gov to identify RCTs of triclosan-coated sutures compared with conventional sutures and assessing the clinical effectiveness of antimicrobial sutures to decrease the risk for SSIs. A fixed- and random-effects model was developed, and pooled estimates reported as risk ratio (RR) with a corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI). Publication bias was assessed by analyzing a funnel plot of individual studies and testing the Egger regression intercept. Results The meta-analysis (13 RCTs, 3,568 patients) found that use of triclosan antimicrobial-coated sutures was associated with a decrease in SSIs in selected patient populations (fixed effect: RR = 0.734; 95% CI: 0.590–0.913; P = .005; random-effect: RR = 0.693; 95% CI: 0.533–0.920; P = .011). No publication bias was detected (Egger intercept test: P = .145). Conclusion Decreasing the risk for SSIs requires a multifaceted “care bundle” approach, and this meta-analysis of current, pooled, peer-reviewed, randomized controlled trials suggests a clinical effectiveness of antimicrobial-coated sutures (triclosan) in the prevention of SSIs, representing Center for Evidence-Based Medicine level 1a evidence.

Chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) has been available as a topical antiseptic for over 50 years, having broad clinical application throughout the health care environment. Evidence-based clinical studies have shown chlorhexidine gluconate to be a safe and effective perioperative skin-prepping agent. Renewed interest has emerged for use of the antiseptic bath/shower to reduce the microbial skin burden prior to hospital admission. Recent clinical studies have documented that multiple applications of 2% or 4% CHG using a standardized protocol results in high skin surface concentrations sufficient to inhibit/kill skin colonizing flora, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. A new focus for the use of CHG in surgical patients involves irrigation of the wound prior to closure with 0.05% CHG followed by saline rinse. Recent laboratory studies suggest that, following a 1-minute exposure, 0.05% CHG produces a >5-log reduction against selective health care-associated pathogens and reduces microbial adherence to the surface of implantable biomedical devices. General, orthopedic, cardiothoracic, and obstetrical surgical studies have documented the safety of selective CHG formulations in elective surgical procedures. The following discussion will address both the evidence-based literature and preliminary findings suggesting that CHG has a broad and safe range of applications when used as an adjunctive interventional strategy for reducing the risk of postoperative surgical site infections (SSI).

Clostridium difficile infections are the leading cause of health care-associated infectious diarrhea, posing a significant risk for both medical and surgical patients. Because of the significant morbidity and mortality associated with C difficile infections, knowledge of the epidemiology of C difficile in combination with a high index of suspicion and susceptible patient populations (including surgical, postcolectomy, and inflammatory bowel disease patients) is warranted. C difficile infections present with a wide spectrum of disease, ranging from mild diarrhea to fulminant colitis or small bowel enteritis and recurrent C difficile infections. Early implementation of medical and operative treatment strategies for C difficile infections is imperative for optimal patient outcomes. National and international guidelines recommend early operative consultation and total abdominal colectomy with end ileostomy and preservation of rectum. Diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage followed by intravenous metronidazole and intracolonic vancomycin administered via the efferent limb of the ileostomy should be considered as an alternative to total colectomy in selected patients. New and emerging strategies for C difficile infection treatment include monoclonal antibodies, vaccines, probiotics, biotherapeutics, and new antibiotics. A successful C difficile prevention and eradication program requires a multidisciplinary approach that includes early disease recognition, implementation of guidelines for monitoring adherence to environmental control, judicious hand hygiene, evidence-based treatment and management strategies, and a focused antibiotic stewardship program. Surgeons are an important part of the clinical team in the management of C difficile infection prevention and treatment.

Percutaneous injuries associated with cutting instruments, needles, and other sharps (eg, metallic meshes, bone fragments, etc) occur commonly during surgical procedures, exposing members of surgical teams to the risk for contamination by blood-borne pathogens. This study evaluated the efficacy of an innovative integrated antimicrobial glove to reduce transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) following a simulated surgical-glove puncture injury.A pneumatically activated puncturing apparatus was used in a surgical-glove perforation model to evaluate the passage of live HIV-1 virus transferred via a contaminated blood-laden needle, using a reference (standard double-layer glove) and an antimicrobial benzalkonium chloride (BKC) surgical glove. The study used 2 experimental designs. In method A, 10 replicates were used in 2 cycles to compare the mean viral load following passage through standard and antimicrobial gloves. In method B, 10 replicates were pooled into 3 aliquots and were used to assess viral passage though standard and antimicrobial test gloves. In both methods, viral viability was assessed by observing the cytopathic effects in human lymphocytic C8166 T-cell tissue culture. Concurrent viral and cell culture viability controls were run in parallel with the experiment's studies.All controls involving tissue culture and viral viability were performed according to study design. Mean HIV viral loads (log(10)TCID(50)) were significantly reduced (P.01) following passage through the BKC surgical glove compared to passage through the nonantimicrobial glove. The reduction (log reduction and percent viral reduction) of the HIV virus ranged from 1.96 to 2.4 and from 98.9% to 99.6%, respectively, following simulated surgical-glove perforation.Sharps injuries in the operating room pose a significant occupational risk for surgical practitioners. The findings of this study suggest that an innovative antimicrobial glove was effective at significantly (P.01) reducing the risk for blood-borne virus transfer in a model of simulated glove perforation.

Intra-operative surgical site irrigation (lavage) is common practice in surgical procedures in general, with all disciplines advocating some form of irrigation before incision closure. This practice, however, has been neither standardized nor is there compelling evidence that it effectively reduces the risk of surgical site infection (SSI). This narrative review addresses the laboratory and clinical evidence that is available to support the practice of irrigation of the abdominal cavity and superficial/deep incisional tissues, using specific irrigation solutions at the end of an operative procedure to reduce the microbial burden at wound closure.Review of PubMed and OVID for pertinent, scientific, and clinical publications in the English language was performed.Incision irrigation was found to afford a three-fold benefit: First, to hydrate the bed; second, to assist in allowing better examination of the area immediately before closure; and finally, by removing superficial and deep incisional contamination and lowering the bioburden, expedite the healing process. The clinical practice of intra-operative peritoneal lavage is highly variable and is dependent solely on surgeon preference. By contrast, intra-operative irrigation after device-related procedures has become a standard of care for the prophylaxis of acute peri-prosthetic infection. The clinical evidence that supports the use of antibiotic irrigation is limited and based on retrospective analysis and few acceptable randomized controlled trials. The results of laboratory and animal studies using aqueous 0.05% chlorhexidine gluconate are favorable, suggesting that further studies are justified to determine its clinical efficacy.The adoption of appropriate and standardized intra-operative irrigation practices into peri-operative care bundles, which include other evidence-based strategies (weight-based antimicrobial prophylaxis, antimicrobial sutures, maintenance of normothermia, and glycemic control), offers an inexpensive and effective method to reduce the risk of post-operative SSI and deserves further evaluation.

Background: Perioperative hair removal using clippers requires lengthy cleanup to remove loose hairs contaminating the operative field. We compared the amount of hair debris and associated microbiologic contamination produced during clipping of surgical sites using standard surgical clippers (SSC) or clippers fitted with a vacuum-assisted hair collection device (SCVAD). Methods: Trained nurses conducted bilateral hair clipping of the chest and groin of 18 male subjects using SSC or SCVAD. Before and during clipping, measurements of particulate matter and bacterial contamination were evaluated on settling plates placed next to each subject’s chest and groin. Skin condition after clipping and total clipping/cleanup times were compared between SSC and SCVAD. Results: The microbial burden recovered from residual hair during cleanup in the SSC group was 3.9 log10 CFU and 4.6 log10 CFU from respective, chest, and groin areas. Use of the SCVAD resulted in a significant (P < .001) reduction in both residual hair and microbial contamination within the operative field compared with SSC. Conclusions: Use of SCVAD resulted in significant (P< .001) reduction in total time required to clip and clean up residual hair contaminating the operative field compared with standard practice (ie, SSC), eliminating the need to physically remove dispersed hairs, which can harbor a significant microbial burden, from within the operative field.

Improving the quality and safety of intensive care unit (ICU) care in the United States is a significant challenge for the future. Obtaining improvement in systems of care is difficult given the reactionary mode physicians tend to enter when dealing with moment-to-moment crises. It will be important to implement quality and safety measures that are already supported by evidence. Improvement of device safety will be critical to reducing the large number of device-related complications that occur in US ICUs. Prospective collection of adverse events with rigorous analysis will be important to allow systematic errors to be exposed and corrected.