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Understanding predator guild resource use is vital for carnivore species preservation and ecosystem function in high-altitude landscapes. We describe the dietary composition, similarity, and niche overlap for seven carnivore species across three regions of the Qinghai–Tibetan Plateau (Qilian Shan, East Burhanbuda Mountain, Yushu) using DNA metabarcoding of 760 scat samples. Analyses found 33 unique prey items representative of the classes Mammalia, Aves, and Actinopterygii. Blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) and pika (Ochotona sp.) were most frequently detected. Livestock in carnivore diets ranged from 4% to 7% depending on site, but accounted for 21.7% of Tibetan wolf (Canis lupus) diet. Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx), Tibetan fox (Vulpes ferrilata), Pallas’s cat (Otocolobus manul), and snow leopard (Panthera uncia) had highly uneven diets. Intraguild predation of mesocarnivores by apex carnivores was found. Analysis of dietary niche overlap using Pianka’s index showed that overlap was significantly greater than expected among all carnivores examined and between apex and mesocarnivores, though significant correlations between carnivore body mass and prey body mass suggested broad separation in consumed prey. Snow leopard and Tibetan wolf diets were consistently the most similar of any two given species pairs. This study provides evidence of high dietary overlap. Protection for species consumed by a wide variety of carnivores will benefit predator guilds in the area and assist in maintaining the relatively low frequency of livestock predation. This work provides insight into the dynamics of carnivore guilds living in an area that has worldwide impacts, and methods herein could be applied on global scales for conservation efforts.

Assessing species’ vulnerability to climate change is a prerequisite for developing effective strategies to reduce emerging climate‐related threats. We used the maximum entropy algorithm (MaxEnt model) to assess potential changes in suitable snow leopard (Panthera uncia) habitat in Qinghai Province, China, under a mild climate change scenario. Our results showed that the area of suitable snow leopard habitat in Qinghai Province was 302,821 km2 under current conditions and 228,997 km2 under the 2050s climatic scenario, with a mean upward shift in elevation of 90 m. At present, nature reserves protect 38.78% of currently suitable habitat and will protect 42.56% of future suitable habitat. Current areas of climate refugia amounted to 212,341 km2 and are mainly distributed in the Sanjiangyuan region, Qilian mountains, and surrounding areas. Our results provide valuable information for formulating strategies to meet future conservation challenges brought on by climate stress. We suggest that conservation efforts in Qinghai Province should focus on protecting areas of climate refugia and on maintaining or building corridors when planning for future species management., Climate change challenges current snow leopard conservation efforts; identify refugia and corridors under climate change for species; and provide adaptation strategies to mitigate climate‐related threats to the species.

Background Diet analysis is essential to understanding the functional role of large bird species in food webs. Morphological analysis of regurgitated bird pellet contents is time intensive and may underestimate biodiversity. DNA metabarcoding has the ability to circumvent these issues, but has yet to be done. Methods We present a pilot study using DNA metabarcoding of MT-RNR1 and MT-CO1 markers to determine the species of origin and prey of 45 pellets collected in Qinghai and Gansu Provinces, China. Results We detected four raptor species [Eurasian Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo), Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis), and Upland Buzzard (Buteo hemilasius)] and 11 unique prey species across 10 families and 4 classes. Mammals were the greatest detected prey class with Plateau Pika (Ochotona curzoniae) being the most frequent. Observed Shannon’s and Simpson’s diversity for Upland Buzzard were 1.089 and 0.479, respectively, while expected values were 1.312 ± 0.266 and 0.485 ± 0.086. For Eurasian Eagle Owl, observed values were 1.202 and 0.565, while expected values were 1.502 ± 0.340 and 0.580 ± 0.114. Interspecific dietary niche partitioning between the two species was not detected. Conclusions Our results demonstrate successful use of DNA metabarcoding for understanding diet via a novel noninvasive sample type to identify common and uncommon species. More work is needed to understand how raptor diets vary locally, and the mechanisms that enable exploitation of similar dietary resources. This approach has wide ranging applicability to other birds of prey, and demonstrates the power of using DNA metabarcoding to study species noninvasively.

Application of next-generation sequencing (NGS) to DNA metabarcoding can greatly increase the understanding of predator–prey dynamics and the conflict between wildlife and humans, but remains underutilized for carnivores such as the threatened snow leopard (Panthera uncia). To date, this technique was hindered by the difficulty in discerning closely related caprines (Caprinae). We identified a segment of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (MT-CO1) to differentiate these prey, and used this marker in tandem with a portion of mitochondrial 12S rRNA (MT-RNR1) to determine dietary items in 165 genetically confirmed snow leopard scats from four range countries. Identified prey species consisted of ten medium to large mammals, three small mammals, and two birds. The dominant prey consumed varied by country, with markhor (Capra falconeri) most prevalent in Pakistan, Siberian ibex (C. sibirica) in Mongolia and Kyrgyzstan, and blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) in China. Livestock comprised 31% of diet occurrences from Pakistan and 15% from Mongolia. Domestic livestock included goat (C. aegagrus hircus), sheep (Ovis aries), bovids (Bos taurus, B. grunniens, and potentially hybrids), and horse (Equus caballus). Protection and management of regionally specific wild prey is crucial for sustaining snow leopard populations, although overall dietary breadth suggests that snow leopards may exploit other species if necessary, including livestock. Additional sampling efforts across seasons, years, regions, and areas with varying degrees of livestock depredation are needed. MT-CO1 in conjunction with MT-RNR1 can be applied to other carnivore diet studies, making it an important tool for conservation and research, particularly in ecosystems with pastoral communities.

Damage to homesteads by brown bears (Ursus arctos) has become commonplace in Asia, Europe, and the Americas. Science‐based solutions for preventing damages can contribute to the establishment of mechanisms that promote human–bear coexistence. We examined the spatial distribution patterns of house break‐ins by Tibetan brown bears (U. a. pruinosus) in Zhiduo County of the Sanjiangyuan region in China. Occurrence points of bear damage were collected from field surveys completed from 2017 to 2019. The maximum entropy (MaxEnt) model was then used to assess house break‐in risk. Circuit theory modeling was used to simulate risk diffusion paths based on the risk map generated from our MaxEnt model. The results showed that (a) the total risk area of house break‐ins caused by brown bears was 11,577.91 km2, accounting for 29.85% of Zhiduo County, with most of the risk areas were distributed in Sanjiangyuan National Park, accounting for 58.31% of the total risk area; (b) regions of alpine meadow located in Sanjiangyuan National Park with a high human population density were associated with higher risk; (c) risk diffusion paths extended southeast to northwest, connecting the inside of Sanjiangyuan National Park to its outside border; and (d) eastern Suojia, southern Zhahe, eastern Duocai, and southern Jiajiboluo had more risk diffusion paths than other areas examined, indicating higher risk for brown bear break‐ins in these areas. Risk diffusion paths will need strong conservation management to facilitate migration and gene flow of brown bears and to alleviate bear damage, and implementation of compensation schemes may be necessary in risk areas to offset financial burdens. Our analytical methods can be applied to conflict reduction efforts and wildlife conservation planning across the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau., Assessing risk areas and simulating risk diffusion paths are crucial steps toward mitigating brown bear damage and provide a foundation for developing conservation programs and policies that aimed at making coexistence possible.

Climate change has been regarded as one of the major threats to endangered species, and offers a wide variety of challenges to current conservation strategies. Assessing species’ vulnerability to climate change is a critical initial step for improving in-situ conservation planning. In this study, we used MaxEnt to predict the impacts of climate change on habitat suitability for wild camel (Camelus ferus) in the Kumtag Desert both during the current period and projected into the 2050 s. Our results showed that (i) suitable habitat for wild camel was predicted to decrease by 43.81% by the 2050 s; (ii) currently established nature reserves protected 57.86% of currently suitable habitat; (iii) 44.15% of currently suitable habitat was predicted to be vulnerable to future climate change, with a minor increase in newly suitable habitat by the 2050 s; (iv) climate refuge areas amounted to 21,601 km2 and were mainly located in the core area of the desert. Given these results, we propose conservation implications to mitigate the impacts of climate change on wild camel, including intergrating the suitable habitat into the planning of a proposed national park, constructing habitat corridors, restoring water sources, and implementing long-term monitoring.

Global climate change poses major challenges for current biodiversity conservation efforts. Assessing species’ vulnerability to climate change is a prerequisite for developing effective strategies to reduce emerging climate-related threats. We used the maximum entropy algorithm (MaxEnt model) to assess potential changes in snow leopard (Panthera uncia) suitable habitat in Qinghai Province, China under a mild climate change scenario. Our results showed that the area of snow leopard suitable habitat in Qinghai Province was 302,821 km2 under current conditions and 228,997 km2 under 2050’s climatic scenario, and that its mean elevation would shift upward 90 m. At present, nature reserves protect 38.78% of the currently suitable habitat and will protect 42.56% of future suitable habitat. Current areas climate refugia amounted to 212,341 km2, mainly distributed in Sanjiangyuan, Qilian mountains and surrounding areas. Our results provide valuable information for formulating strategies to meet future conservation challenges brought on by climate stress. We suggest that conservation efforts in Qinghai Province should focus on protecting areas of climate refugia and on maintaining or building corridors when planning for future species management.

Understanding animals’ migration, distribution and activity patterns is vital for the development of effective conservation action plans; however, such data for many species are lacking. In this study, we used camera trapping to document the spatial and temporal activity patterns of golden takins (Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi) in Changqing National Nature Reserve in the Qinling mountains, China, from April 2014 to October 2017. Our study obtained 3,323 independent detections (from a total of 12,351 detections) during a total camera trapping effort of 93,606 effective camera trap days at 573 sites. Results showed that: (1) the golden takin’s utilization distributions showed seasonal variation, with larger utilization distributions during spring and autumn compared to summer and winter; (2) the species was recorded at the highest elevations in July, and lowest elevations in December, with the species moving to higher-elevations in summer, lower-elevations in spring and autumn; (3) during all four seasons, golden takins showed bimodal activity peaks at dawn and dusk, with activity intensity higher in the second peak than the first, and overall low levels of activity recorded from 20:00–06:00; and (4) there were two annual activity peaks, the first being in April and the second in November, with camera capture rate during these two months higher than in other months, and activity levels in spring and autumn higher than in summer and winter. This study is the first application of camera traps to assess the spatial and temporal activity patterns of golden takins at a population level. Our findings suggest that the proposed national park should be designed to include golden takin habitat and that ongoing consistent monitoring efforts will be crucial to mitigating novel and ongoing threats to the species.

Personal injury and property loss caused by wildlife often deteriorates the relationship between humans and animals, prompting retaliatory killings that threaten species survival. Conflicts between humans and Tibetan brown bears (Ursus arctos pruinosus) (Human-Bear Conflicts, HBC) in the Sanjiangyuan region have recently dramatically increased, seriously affecting community enthusiasm for brown bears and the conservation of other species. In order to understand the driving mechanisms of HBC, we proposed six potential drivers leading to increased occurrences of HBC. We conducted field research in Zhiduo County of the Sanjiangyuan region from 2017 to 2019 to test hypotheses through semi-constructed interviews, marmot (Marmota himalayana) density surveys and brown bear diet analysis based on metagenomic sequencing. Analysis of herder perceptions revealed that the driving factors of HBC were related to changes in their settlement practice and living habits, changes in foraging behavior of brown bears and recovery of the brown bear population. Since the establishment of winter homes, brown bears have gradually learned to utilize the food in unattended homes. Although 91.4% (n = 285) of the respondents no longer store food in unattended homes, brown bears were reported to still frequently approach winter homes for food due to improper disposal of dead livestock and household garbage. The frequency and abundance of marmots were found to be high in brown bear diet, indicating that marmots were the bears' primary food. However, marmot density had no significant effect on brown bears utilizing human food (P = 0.329), and HBC appears to not be caused by natural food shortages. Distance to rocky outcrops (P = 0.022) and winter homes (P = 0.040) were the key factors linked to brown bears pursuing human food. The number of brown bears has increased over the past decade, and HBC is likely linked to its population recovery. Our findings will provide scientific basis for formulating effective mitigation measures and protection countermeasures for brown bears.

Concern for elephant welfare in zoological facilities has prompted a number of exhibit and management modifications, including those involving enrichment. Knowledge of how these changes impact indicators of welfare, such as elephant movement and behaviour, is crucial for continued improvement of elephant husbandry and care. The present study used observations and GPS-collected data to determine the effects of available space and food presentation on the walking distance and behaviour of thirteen African elephants (Loxodonta africana), which had a dominance structure ascertained by animal care staff at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park (SDZSP). This facility has two exhibits of approximately equal size. Three treatments were created to assess the effects of food and space enrichment: (i) access to half of the exhibit with food (Half); (ii) access to the entire exhibit with food in one yard (Both/Half); and (iii) access to the entire exhibit with food in both yards (Both). For Half and Both/Half, food was presented in each yard for an equal number of trials. Significant differences across treatments were revealed for average total walking distances but this was not found between any two given treatments. Walking distance varied among elephants belonging to different dominance groups, with middle-ranked elephants taking the most advantage of a larger available space. Behaviour did not differ across treatments, but the change in behavioural diversity from one treatment to another was significant for subordinate elephants. The information obtained from this study has direct implications for the management of the SDZSP elephants and for other facilities looking to increase walking distance or subordinate behavioural diversity.

The snow leopard, Panthera uncia, is an elusive high-altitude specialist that inhabits vast, inaccessible habitat across Asia. We conducted the first range-wide genetic assessment of snow leopards based on noninvasive scat surveys. Thirty-three microsatellites were genotyped and a total of 683 bp of mitochondrial DNA sequenced in 70 individuals. Snow leopards exhibited low genetic diversity at microsatellites (AN = 5.8, HO = 0.433, HE = 0.568), virtually no mtDNA variation, and underwent a bottleneck in the Holocene (∼8000 years ago) coinciding with increased temperatures, precipitation, and upward treeline shift in the Tibetan Plateau. Multiple analyses supported 3 primary genetic clusters: (1) Northern (the Altai region), (2) Central (core Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau), and (3) Western (Tian Shan, Pamir, trans-Himalaya regions). Accordingly, we recognize 3 subspecies, Panthera uncia irbis (Northern group), Panthera uncia uncia (Western group), and Panthera uncia uncioides (Central group) based upon genetic distinctness, low levels of admixture, unambiguous population assignment, and geographic separation. The patterns of variation were consistent with desert-basin "barrier effects" of the Gobi isolating the northern subspecies (Mongolia), and the trans-Himalaya dividing the central (Qinghai, Tibet, Bhutan, and Nepal) and western subspecies (India, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Kyrgyzstan). Hierarchical Bayesian clustering analysis revealed additional subdivision into a minimum of 6 proposed management units: western Mongolia, southern Mongolia, Tian Shan, Pamir-Himalaya, Tibet-Himalaya, and Qinghai, with spatial autocorrelation suggesting potential connectivity by dispersing individuals up to ∼400 km. We provide a foundation for global conservation of snow leopard subspecies, and set the stage for in-depth landscape genetics and genomic studies.

Noninvasive genetic methods and genomics have been able to provide important insights into the distribution, ecology, and evolution of the snow leopard. Scat sampling has yielded quantitative population size estimates using surveys that can be implemented over areas larger than can be done with more traditional methods. Scat has also been used to better understand the diet of this species. It has been found that in many regions snow leopards frequently consume livestock. New molecular markers enable studies to understand the spatial and temporal variation in depredation and to evaluate conservation actions that seek to reduce it. Scats also represent important population samples that have been used to provide insights into the phylogeography and population structure of the snow leopard. Patterns in genetic variation indicate several barriers leading to three primary clusters, while also identifying broader regions where landscape connectivity maintains metapopulations. Next-generation sequencing of 5 snow leopard whole genomes identified 257,780 SNPs that can be genotyped to acquire finer resolution of structure and understand genomic differences. Genome-wide analysis has enabled a closer examination of the two candidate genes, EGLN1 and EPAS1, which likely play an important role in the high-altitude adaptation of snow leopards by modulating the cellular response to hypoxia. There is additional evidence that one target gene, VEGFA, has higher expression in snow leopard lung compared to tiger, potentially leading to improved ventilation. More in-depth studies are needed to generate rigorous population estimates, understand factors that drive livestock depredation, identify the important corridors for connectivity, and elucidate the high-altitude physiological adaptations of this species. The resulting information will contribute to designing effective conservation and management initiatives that ensure long-term stability of snow leopards throughout their range.

Biodiversity loss from climate and land use change is a global occurrence, but is of particular concern in more prominent biodiverse and sensitive areas such as the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region. This region harbors two species of geographically separated brown bear (Ursus arctos) - the Tibetan (U. a. pruinosus) and Himalayan brown bear (U. a. isabellinus). Both serve as important umbrella species, providing many ecological benefits to their surrounding ecosystems. However, how these two species from the same taxonomic group but with distinct geographical ranges, will respond to climate and land use change is poorly understood. The aim of this study was to predict the potential impacts of future climate and land use change on the distribution and dispersal paths of Tibetan and Himalayan brown bears in the HKH region. We applied MaxEnt modeling to predict the distribution of the two bear species both currently and for the year 2070, using three General Circulation Models and three scenarios of climate and land use change. We then identified potential dispersal paths using Circuit Theory. Results showed that both species would be negatively affected by the climate and land use change expected in the 2070s. In all three climate scenarios, their distribution areas would both shrink and shift to higher altitudes. Throughout the HKH region, Tibetan and Himalayan brown bears were predicted to lose over 34% and 32% of currently inhabited area under the most severe climate scenario, respectively. In addition, results showed that the density of dispersal paths for Tibetan brown bear would decrease while dispersal resistance would increase, and that dispersal paths for Himalayan brown bears would shift to higher latitudes. To protect these species, the currently suitable distribution areas and dispersal paths should be considered as priority protected areas. Our findings provide a scientific basis for allocating protected areas in the HKH region that are effective under the context of global climate change, and for establishing transboundary cooperation in the HKH region.

Elephants in the wild face several conservation issues. With the rebranding of zoos as conservation and education pioneers, they have the ability to both educate and inspire guests to action. The purpose of this research was to analyze visitor perceptions and attitudes toward elephant conservation and outcomes post-exhibit visit. A one-page survey was randomly administered to assess perceptions of elephant behavior, attitudes about elephant conservation, and intended conservation-related outcomes from September 2013 to January 2014. Principle component analysis identified three major components: concern for elephants in zoos, importance of elephants in the wild, and modification of nature. Visitors who scored highly on conservation intent were those with positive attitudes towards elephants in the wild and negative attitudes regarding the modification of nature. The greatest changes in conservation intent were a result of a self-reported up-close encounter and the ability to witness active behaviors. Providing guests with the opportunity to witness or experience such occurrences may aid in a more successful delivery of the zoo's conservation message. Further research into guest emotions and affective states in relation to viewing elephants in a zoological institution would provide greater insight into improving the guest experience and helping zoos meet their conservation mission. Zoo Biol. 35:355-361, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Habitat degradation and species range contraction due to land use/land cover changes (LULCC) is a major threat to global biodiversity. The ever-growing human population has trespassed deep into the natural habitat of many species via the expansion of agricultural lands and infrastructural development. Carnivore species are particularly at risk, as they demand conserved and well-connected habitat with minimum to no anthropogenic disturbance. In Pakistan, the snow leopard (Panthera uncia) is found in three mountain ranges—the Himalayas, Hindukush, and Karakoram. Despite this being one of the harshest environments on the planet, a large population of humans reside here and exploit surrounding natural resources to meet their needs. Keeping in view this exponentially growing population and its potential impacts on at-risk species like the snow leopard, we used geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing with the aim of identifying and quantifying LULCC across snow leopard range in Pakistan for the years 2000, 2010, and 2020. A massive expansion of 1804.13 km2 (163%) was observed in the built-up area during the study period. Similarly, an increase of 3177.74 km2 (153%) was observed in agricultural land. Barren mountain land increased by 12,368.39 km2 (28%) while forest land decreased by 2478.43 km2 (28%) and area with snow cover decreased by 14,799.83 km2 (52%). Drivers of these large-scale changes are likely the expanding human population and climate change. The overall quality and quantity of snow leopard habitat in Pakistan has drastically changed in the last 20 years and could be compromised. Swift and direct conservation actions to monitor LULCC are recommended to reduce any associated negative impacts on species preservation efforts. In the future, a series of extensive field surveys and studies should be carried out to monitor key drivers of LULCC across the observed area.

Pastoralists are key stakeholders in environmental management decisions in China, thus, their involvement in wildlife conservation and research is imperative for the success of long-term initiatives. Despite the many opportunities for herders to be included in these efforts, biases have hindered knowledge exchange and collaborative outcomes. This is detrimental for species living in quickly changing landscapes reliant on effective conservation, such as that of the snow leopard (Panthera uncia). Pastoralists living in snow leopard habitats on the Qinghai&ndash, Tibetan Plateau of China possess a deep and intricate understanding of the environments in which they live, and can serve as strong conservation allies by playing direct roles in scientific endeavors via expert elicitation and engagement. Here, we draw on our own experiences as academically trained scientists to present a framework for broadening opportunities for local community member participation in research efforts on the species. Framework outcomes include better targeting of conservation concerns, increased integration of Western science and local ecological knowledge, additional income to the community, clearer communication and trust between conservation stakeholders, greater flexibility in research, and additional platforms for community-based conservation. We outline avenues of involvement and considerations when working with local community members in snow leopard habitat, and submit this as an example with wide-ranging applicability to other parts of the world where livelihoods are intrinsically tied to the environment.

Northern regions of Pakistan support a relatively large population of wild ungulates, the preferred prey of sympatric carnivores. The Asiatic ibex (Capra Ibex Sibirica) is one such an ungulate species which also serves as an important trophy animal. The maintenance of trophy hunting programs rely on estimates of harvestable population sizes derived from rigorous methods. The present study successfully used the double observer-based Capture-Mark-Recapture (CMR) method to produce a reliable and accurate estimate of the Asiatic ibex population in the Community Control Hunting Areas (CCHAs) of Socterabad, Gojal watershed and Khunjerab National Park (KNP). Surveys were conducted from February to March 2018 and from March to April 2019. The total ibex population was calculated to be 1075 individuals (95%CI ± 670) with a density of 1.43 ibex/km2 in Gojal watershed, followed by Socterabad with 856 individuals (95%CI ± 680) and a density of 6.24ibex/km2, and lastly KNP with 463 individuals (95%CI ± 93.5) and a density of 0.14ibex/km2. A total of 52 herds were sighted in Gojal watershed with mean size of 19 ibex/herd (SE ± 3.2). In Socterabad, 28 herds were sighted with mean size of 16.07 ibex/herd (SE ± 2.4) and in KNP 28 herds were sighted with average recorded size of 16.5 ibex/herd (SE ± 3.4). In KNP Sex ratios of female to young, female to yearling and female to male were 1:0.7, 1:0.4, and 1:0.5 respectively. The detection probability of observer two was less than observer one. Ibex biomass recorded is insufficient for current recorded snow leopard (Panthera uncia) and wolf (Canis lupus) population in the area. Our study validates the use of Capture Mark Recapture as a viable tool in discerning ungulate populations, and shows that the population of the Asiatic ibex is viable in the study area, making it suitable for trophy hunting programs but need to modify the hunting law.

The potential application of GPS technology in determining relationships among social animals was addressed in this study of eight African elephants residing at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park in Escondido, CA, USA between 2009 and 2011. GPS coordinates were collected over nine 24 h periods from eight different elephants. The average distances between individuals were then calculated for the morning, afternoon and evening time periods as well as for the entire 24 h. Behavioral data were collected to calculate rates of both positive and negative interactions between elephants as well as David's scores to measure sociality. Lastly, input from the management staff regarding the elephants’ social relations was utilized to determine pairs who may display high levels of social proximity as well as the construction of a dominance structure. Significant correlations were found between the social relations determined by animal management staff and the GPS morning data (r = −0.431, P = 0.022), the social relations determined by animal management staff and the GPS daily data (r = −0.401, P = 0.034), the corrected David's scores and the GPS daily data (r = 0.471, P = 0.012), the early time period (r = 0.614, P = 0.001), the morning time period (r = 0.441, P = 0.020) and the afternoon time period (r = 0.474, P = 0.012) and the rate of positive social interactions and the GPS evening data (r = −0.386, P = 0.042). These results suggest that GPS technology can be used as a proxy tool in determining social relationships. GPS devices can aid in animal behavior research by eliminating the need for an observer and thereby relieving time and staff restraints. Planning the daily management of animals around their known social groups can potentially increase overall animal welfare and safety for caretakers. For example, keeping the animals in their known social groups could decrease stress and the potential for aggressive behavior during training, transport, shifting of individuals or groups between exhibits, and general husbandry.

With increased scrutiny surrounding the welfare of elephants in zoological institutions, it is important to have empirical evidence on their current welfare status. If elephants are not receiving adequate exercise, it could lead to obesity, which can lead to many issues including acyclicity and potentially heart disease. The goal of the current study was to compare the walking rates of elephants in the wild versus elephants in zoos to determine if elephants are walking similar distances relative to their wild counterparts. Eleven wild elephants throughout different habitats and locations in Botswana were compared to 8 elephants at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. Direct comparisons revealed no significant difference in average walking rates of zoo elephants when compared with wild elephants. These results suggest that elephants at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park walk similar rates to those of wild elephants and may be meeting their exercise needs.