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A CFD based procedure is described to identify the optimum inclination angle of a small-scale roof-top solar chimney for maximum ventilation performance. The absorber wall of the chimney under consideration is 500-mm long and the air gap width is 40 mm. Firstly, CFD simulations are performed on a two-dimensional solar chimney model with inclination angles varying from 30° to 90° relative to the horizontal plane under different heat fluxes. Subsequently, a mathematical procedure using the CFD data to estimate the ventilation performance of the solar chimney at different inclination angles under real climate conditions is described. The procedure accounts for the effect of the inclination angle on receivable solar irradiance and is applied to three Australian cities, corresponding to three different latitudes. It is found that the optimum inclination angle varies from 45° to 60°, depending on the latitude and season of operation.

With rapid urbanization, population growth and anthropogenic activities, an increasing number of major cities across the globe are facing severe urban heat islands (UHI). UHI can cause complex impacts on the urban environment and human health, and it may bring more severe effects under heatwave (HW) conditions. In this paper, a holistic review is conducted to articulate the findings of the synergies between UHI and HW and corresponding mitigation measures proposed by the research community. It is worth pointing out that most studies show that urban areas are more vulnerable than rural areas during HWs, but the opposite is also observed in some studies. Changes in urban energy budget and major drivers are discussed and compared to explain such discrepancies. Recent studies also indicate that increasing albedo, vegetation fraction and irrigation can lower the urban temperature during HWs. Research gaps in this topic necessitate more studies concerning vulnerable cities in developing countries. Moreover, multidisciplinary studies considering factors such as UHI, HW, human comfort, pollution dispersion and the efficacy of mitigation measures should be conducted to provide more accurate and explicit guidance to urban planners and policymakers., Sustainability, 13 (19), ISSN:2071-1050

High-mileage vehicles such as taxis make disproportionately large contributions to urban air pollution due to their accelerated engine deterioration rates and high operation intensities despite their small proportions of the total fleet. Controlling emissions from these high-mileage fleets is thus important for improving urban air quality. This study evaluates the effectiveness of a pilot repair program in reducing emissions from taxis in Hong Kong which account for about 2 % of the total licensed vehicles. The emission factors of a large sample of 684 in-service taxis (including 121 for an emission survey program and 563 for a pilot repair program) were measured on transient chassis dynamometers. The results showed that 63 % of the sampled taxis failed the driving cycle test before the pilot repair program. Most of failed taxis were NO related and 91 % of failed taxis exceeded the emission limits of at least two regulated pollutants simultaneously. After the pilot repair program by replacing catalytic converters and oxygen sensors, the failure rate was significantly reduced to only 7 %. In addition, the fleet average NO, HC and CO emission factors were reduced by 85 %, 82 % and 56 %, respectively. In addition, on-road remote sensing measurements confirmed the real-world emission reductions from the taxis that participated in the pilot repair program. These findings led to the implementation of a large-scale replacement program for all taxis in Hong Kong during 2013-2014, which was estimated to have reduced the total HC, CO and NO emissions by about 420, 2570 and 1000 t per year, respectively (equivalent to 5-8 % emission reductions from the whole road transport sector). Therefore, reducing emissions from the small high-mileage fleets is a highly cost-effective measure to improve urban air quality.

Subject to daytime heating and nighttime cooling, a horizontal temperature gradient is generated in nearshore waters owing to the gradually deepening topography offshore. The resulting natural convection has significant biological and environmental implications. The present investigation is concerned with natural convection in a reservoir model induced by a periodically varying surface temperature. A hybrid of semi-analytical approach coupled with scaling analysis and numerical simulation is adopted to characterize the periodic flow. The present scaling focuses on the long period scenario for which a quasi-steady state is reached within a thermal forcing cycle. This is the case in natural water bodies under typical field conditions. Compared to the previously reported constant heating or cooling cases, the present scaling analysis is more complex and the developed scales depend on the period of the thermal forcing. Two critical functions of the Rayleigh number have been derived to identify the distinctness and stability of the thermal boundary layer. Distinct subregions are identified, and the scales of flow velocity and phase lag are derived for different subregions. These scaling results are verified by numerical simulations. Numerical results show that the flow response varies significantly with the length of period. For short periods, the large scale flow never reverses from cooling-induced flow. For the long period scenario, flow reversal occurs, with much more intense flow during the cooling phase than during the heating phase. The phase lag of flow response decreases with increasing period length. Finally, the present scaling results are applied to field situations, which agree well with field observations.

In this paper, a combined solar chimney and water wall is proposed to provide ventilation as well as moderate heating to an attached room. A transient heat balance model (THBM) is established to predict the thermal performance of the combined system under mild winter conditions in Sydney, Australia. The effects of the glass panel thickness, air gap width, water column thickness, surface tinting and the relative position of solar chimney and water wall are studied respectively. The results show that the combined solar chimney and water wall is capable of providing ventilation throughout the day and night while maintaining the warmth level of the room even though it continuously draws fresh air from the ambient into the room. It is found that increasing the glass panel thickness or reducing the water column thickness enhances the thermal performance of the combined system by increasing both the room temperature and the ventilation rate. On the other hand, increasing the air gap width helps to increase the ventilation rate, but will cause the room temperature to decrease. In addition, between the two configurations, one with the water wall in front of the solar chimney (referred to as the WW-SC configuration) and the other with the solar chimney in front of the water wall (referred to as the SC-WW configuration), the ventilation rate and room temperature obtained with the SC-WW configuration are higher, and thus the latter configuration is more favorable. Furthermore, it is found that surface tinting generally degrades the thermal performance of the proposed system.

Dynamic wetting plays an important role in the physics of multiphase flow, and has a significant influence on many industrial and geotechnical applications. In this work, a modified smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) model is employed to simulate surface tension, contact angle and dynamic wetting effects at meso-scale. The wetting and dewetting phenomena are simulated in a capillary tube, where the liquid particles are raised or withdrawn by a shifting substrate. The SPH model is modified by introducing a newly developed viscous force formulation at the liquid–solid interface to reproduce the rate-dependent behaviour of the moving contact line. Dynamic contact angle simulations with the interfacial viscous force are conducted to verify the effectiveness and accuracy of this new formulation. In addition, the influence of interfacial viscous forces with different magnitude on the contact angle dynamics is examined by empirical power-law correlations; the derived constants suggest that the dynamic contact angle changes monotonically with the interfacial viscous force. The simulation results are consistent with experimental observations and theoretical predictions, implying that the interfacial viscous force can be associated with the slip length of flow and the microscopic surface roughness. This work demonstrates that the modified SPH model can successfully account for the rate-dependent effects of a moving contact line, and can be used for realistic multiphase flow simulations under dynamic conditions.

The K-type transition of a natural convection boundary layer of Ra = 9.8 × 109 is studied by PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry) measurements. To excite the transition, Tollmien-Schlitchting (TS) and oblique waves of the same frequency are introduced into the upstream boundary layer in the form of velocity perturbations. It is found that resonant interactions between the characteristic frequency of the natural convection boundary layer and the superimposed TS and oblique waves are present, which trigger the K-type transition of the boundary layer. The typical aligned Λ-shaped flow structures characterising the K-type transition present in the transition of Blasius boundary layers are also observed in the present natural convection boundary layers. They occur when the primary instability grows to a certain extent. The appearance of the spanwise mode characterised by the aligned Λ-shaped flow structures is found to be an ‘abrupt’ process, although the development of the three-dimensionality in the natural convection boundary layer is found to be a ‘gradual’ process. A peak in the typical profile of the Root-Mean-Square (RMS) of the amplitude of streamwise velocity is also noted around the transition point, beyond which distinct three-dimensional Λ-shaped flow structures are observed. The transition point has been determined consistently using different approaches. A Bicoherence analysis suggests that the interaction between the external excitation frequency and the characteristic frequency of the boundary layer is responsible for the production of new harmonic frequencies and resonance groups. The PIV measurements have been extended to a range of perturbation frequencies for the boundary layer, and the dependence of the K-type transition on the perturbation frequency is discussed.

A three-dimensional direct numerical simulation is carried out to investigate the response of the flow past a highly confined circular cylinder to single-mode sinusoidal perturbations. The Reynolds number is fixed at 1000, and the blockage ratio (the ratio of the cylinder diameter to the distance between two lateral walls) is fixed at 0.6. Local perturbations are introduced upstream of the cylinder at normalized excitation frequencies ( fe/f0) from 0.2 to 3.4, where f0 is the vortex shedding frequency in an unperturbed flow. It is observed that the vortex shedding frequency of the perturbed flows ( fs) and the excitation frequency ( fe) are locked-on in four distinct modes including fs = 2.0 fe, fs = 1.5 fe, fs = 1.0 fe, and fs = 0.5 fe, respectively. Among them, the fundamental lock-on with fs = 0.5 fe appears over a wide range of excitation frequencies ( fe/f0 = 1.4–2.8). By contrast, only the fundamental lock-on regime of fs = 0.5 fe is observed when perturbing an unconfined flow at the same Reynolds number, highlighting the significant impact of confinement on the lock-on behavior. It is further revealed that the lock-on behavior is controlled by the responses of separated shear layers in the near wake, which switch from higher modes to lower modes with increasing excitation frequency in the confined flow.

Urban street canyons formed by high-rise buildings restrict the dispersion of vehicle emissions, which pose severe health risks to the public by aggravating roadside air quality. However, this issue is often overlooked in city planning. This paper reviews the mechanisms controlling vehicle emission dispersion in urban street canyons and the strategies for managing roadside air pollution. Studies have shown that air pollution hotspots are not all attributed to heavy traffic and proper urban design can mitigate air pollution. The key factors include traffic conditions, canyon geometry, weather conditions and chemical reactions. Two categories of mitigation strategies are identified, namely traffic interventions and city planning. Popular traffic interventions for street canyons include low emission zones and congestion charges which can moderately improve roadside air quality. In comparison, city planning in terms of building geometry can significantly promote pollutant dispersion in street canyons. General design guidelines, such as lower canyon aspect ratio, alignment between streets and prevailing winds, non-uniform building heights and ground-level building porosity, may be encompassed in new development. Concurrently, in-street barriers are widely applicable to rectify the poor roadside air quality in existing street canyons. They are broadly classified into porous (e.g. trees and hedges) and solid (e.g. kerbside parked cars, noise fences and viaducts) barriers that utilize their aerodynamic advantages to ease roadside air pollution. Post-evaluations are needed to review these strategies by real-world field experiments and more detailed modelling in the practical perspective.

Many researchers use one-dimensional (1-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) coupled hydrodynamic and water-quality models to simulate water quality dynamics, but direct comparison of their relative performance is rare. Such comparisons may quantify their relative advantages, which can inform best practices. In this study, we compare two 1-year simulations in a shallow, eutrophic, managed reservoir using a community-developed 1-D model and a 3-D model coupled with the same water-quality model library based on multiple evaluation criteria. In addition, a verified bubble plume model is coupled with the 1-D and 3-D models to simulate the water temperature in four epilimnion mixing periods to further quantify the relative performance of the 1-D and 3-D models. Based on the present investigation, adopting a 1-D water-quality model to calibrate a 3-D model is time-efficient and can produce reasonable results, 3-D models are recommended for simulating thermal stratification and management interventions, whereas 1-D models may be more appropriate for simpler model setups, especially if field data needed for 3-D modeling are lacking.

To understand water quality degradation during hypoxia, we need to understand sediment oxygen fluxes, the main oxygen sink in shallow hypolimnia. Kinetic models, which integrate diffusion and consumption of dissolved oxygen (DO) in sediments, usually assume a downward flux of DO from the sediment-water interface (SWI) with a zero-flux condition at the lower boundary of the oxic sediment layer. In this paper, we separately account for the oxidation of an upward flux of reduced compounds by introducing a negative flux of DO as a lower boundary condition. Using in situ measurements in two lakes, kinetic models were fit to DO microprofiles using zero-order and first-order kinetics with both zero and non-zero lower boundary conditions. Based on visual inspection and goodness-of-fit criteria, the negative-flux lower boundary condition, -0.25 g O 2 m -2 d -1, was found to more accurately describe DO consumption kinetics. Fitted zero-order rate constants ranged from 50 to 510 mg L -1 d -1, and first-order rate constants ranged from 60 to 400 d -1, which agree well with prior laboratory studies. DO fluxes at the SWI calculated from the simulated profiles with the negative-flux lower boundary condition also showed better agreement with the observed DO fluxes than the simulated profiles with the zero-flux lower boundary condition.

Bubble-plume mixing systems are often deployed in eutrophic lakes and reservoirs to manage phytoplankton taxa. Unfortunately, inconsistent outcomes from bubble-plume (induced) mixing are often reported in the literature. The present study investigates the response of phytoplankton to induced mixing using a whole-reservoir field experiment and a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model (Si3D) coupled with the Aquatic EcoDynamics (AED) model through the framework for aquatic biogeochemical modelling (FABM). The coupled Si3D-AED model is validated against a 24-h field mixing experiment and subsequently used for a numerical parametric study to investigate phytoplankton responses to various induced mixing scenarios in which the phytoplankton settling rate, phytoplankton growth rate, reservoir depth, and mixing system diffuser depth were sequentially varied. Field observations during the mixing experiment suggest that the total phytoplankton concentration (measured in μ g / L ) across the reservoir was reduced by nearly 10% during the 24-h mixing period. The numerical modeling results show that phytoplankton concentration may be substantially affected by the functional traits of the phytoplankton and the deployment depth of the mixing diffuser. Interestingly, the numerical results indicate that the phytoplankton concentration is controlled by reduced growth rates due to light limitation in deep reservoirs (>20 m), whereas settling loss is a more important factor in shallow reservoirs during the mixing period. In addition, the coupled Si3D-AED model results suggest that deploying the mixing diffuser deeper in the water column to increase mixing depth may generally improve the successful management of cyanobacteria using bubble-plume mixing systems. Thus, the coupled Si3D-AED model introduced in the present study can assist with the design and operation of bubble-plume mixing systems.

Natural convection induced by absorption of solar radiation in the near shore of lakes and reservoirs with a sloping bed is investigated experimentally utilising an open top triangular tank and a light source to simulate solar radiation. The present experimental investigation aims to examine the flow quantitatively for experimental parameters up to Rayleigh numbers one order of magnitude greater than that reported by Lei and Patterson (2002). Concurrent shadowgraph/Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) technique is used to characterise the flow quantitatively for a number of experimental cases. Three temporal flow stages, initiation, transitional and quasi steady are identified and three spatial sub-regions, conductive, stable convection and unstable convective, are observed, consistent with previous scaling and numerical results. Scales for the onset of instability, velocities along the slope and the movement of the plumes are also verified by the experiments.

In this study, a Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) measurement is carried out to investigate the flow past a highly confined circular cylinder at a fixed blockage ratio of 60%. The Reynolds number (Re) in terms of the cylinder diameter and the mean incoming flow velocity is varied from 318 to 1431. It is observed that the characteristic frequency of the separated shear layers is amplified through a so-called frequency-filtering process. The instability of the separated shear layers causes two different vortex shedding modes including alternating and symmetric shedding modes, which are observed at Re = 927–1242. An intermittent switch between the two shedding modes is also observed. The theory of mixing layers is applied with modification to predict the characteristics of the separated shear layers, and the prediction shows a good agreement with the experimental data. It is found that the vortex roll-up and merging locations can be estimated by calculating the energy contents of individual frequency modes.

Natural convection arising over vertical and horizontal heated flat surfaces is one of the most ubiquitous flows at a range of spatiotemporal scales. Despite significant developments over more than a century contributing to our fundamental understanding of heat transfer in natural convection boundary layers, certain “hidden” characteristics of these flows have received far less attention. Here, we review scattered progress on less visited fundamental topics that have strong implications to heat and mass transfer control. These topics include the instability characteristics, laminar-to-turbulent transition, and spatial flow structures of vertical natural convection boundary layers and large-scale plumes, dome, and circulating flows over discretely and entirely heated horizontal surfaces. Based on the summarized advancements in fundamental research, we elaborate on the selection of perturbations and provide an outlook on the development of perturbation generators and methods of altering large-scale flow structures as a potential means for heat and mass transfer control where natural convection is dominant.

A three-dimensional liquid bridge is considered in this study to numerically investigate the effects of an external non-uniform rotating magnetic field (RMF) on the thermocapillary flow in semiconductor melt under microgravity. Simulations are carried out to examine the convection and instability features of the thermocapillary flow over a range of Marangoni numbers (Ma = 15–50) under a non-uniform RMF. The present results show that applying an external non-uniform RMF enhances the maximum tangential velocity and depresses the maximum axial velocity. As a consequence, an approximately axisymmetric flow is maintained in the melt under the effect of the non-uniform RMF, which is beneficial for growing high quality crystal. Further investigation of the thermocapillary flow subject to different non-uniform RMFs (corresponding to Taylor numbers Ta = 3.8 × 10 2 –1.86 × 10 4 and Rotating Reynolds number Re ω = 2.2 × 10 4 ) reveals that the thermocapillary convection may undergo a transition from the approximately axisymmetric steady flow to a periodically oscillatory flow for Ma above a critical value. The critical Ma generally increases with the intensity of the non-uniform RMF.

The K-type and H-type transitions of a natural convection boundary layer of a fluid of Prandtl number 7 adjacent to an isothermally heated vertical surface are investigated by means of three-dimensional direct numerical simulation (DNS). These two types of transitions refer to different flow features at the transitional stage from laminar to turbulence caused by two different types of perturbations. To excite the K-type transition, superimposed Tollmien–Schlichting (TS) and oblique waves of the same frequency are introduced into the boundary layer. It is found that a three-layer longitudinal vortex structure is present in the boundary layer undergoing the K-type transition. The typical aligned $\wedge$-shaped vortices characterizing the K-type transition are observed for the first time in pure natural convection boundary layers. For exciting the H-type transition, superimposed TS and oblique waves of different frequencies, with the frequency of the oblique waves being half of the frequency of the TS waves, are introduced into the boundary layer. Unlike the three-layer longitudinal vortex structure observed in the K-type transition, a double-layer longitudinal vortex structure is observed in the boundary layer undergoing the H-type transition. The successively staggered $\wedge$-shaped vortices characterizing the H-type transition are also observed in the downstream boundary layer. The staggered pattern of $\wedge$-shaped vortices is considered to be caused by temporal modulation of the TS and oblique waves. Interestingly the flow structures of both the K-type and H-type transitions observed in the natural convection boundary layer are qualitatively similar to those observed in Blasius boundary layers. However, an analysis of turbulence energy production suggests that the turbulence energy production by buoyancy rather than Reynolds stresses dominates the K-type and H-type transitions. In contrast, the turbulence energy production by Reynolds stresses is the only factor contributing to the transition in Blasius boundary layers.

Artificial mixing and hypolimnetic oxygenation are two common methods for improving water quality in reservoirs. To examine the effects of their operation on the thermal structure of the water column, we used a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model coupled with a newly developed water-jet model and an existing linear bubble-plume model in conjunction with whole-reservoir in-situ mixing experiments in a drinking-water reservoir. This reservoir has a side-stream supersaturation (SSS) hypolimnetic oxygenation system and a bubble-plume epilimnetic mixing (EM) system installed to reduce hypolimnetic hypoxia and algal blooms. The results show that the SSS successfully adds dissolved oxygen to the hypolimnion without destratifying the reservoir, whereas the EM, located at the lower metalimnetic boundary, deepens this boundary and partially mixes the metalimnion and epilimnion. The newly developed water-jet model coupled with the hydrodynamic model can successfully predict the variation of the thermal structure in the reservoir. The extent to which the SSS and EM systems affect the thermal structure of the reservoir is also quantified by further application of the coupled hydrodynamic model. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

This investigation is motivated by interest in the mixing caused by the absorption of solar radiation in the near-shore regions of lakes. In the daytime, incoming solar radiation is absorbed by the water following Beer’s law. In the near-shore region where the water depth is less than the penetration depth of solar radiation, the residual radiation reaches the bottom and is absorbed and re-emitted back into the water body as a bottom heat flux, resulting in an adverse temperature gradient which may become unstable. In this laboratory-scale experimental study, this situation is modelled with a water-filled, open top tank with a black bottom subjected to radiative heating from a halogen theatre spotlight. Concurrent shadowgraph and Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) are utilised for simultaneous visualisation of the temperature field and flow measurements. Initially, there is no motion and two distinct thermal boundary layers simultaneously grow from the water surface and from the bottom boundary. The bottom boundary layer becomes unstable at a certain thickness, and rising plumes are formed. The plumes transfer heat and cause circulation and vertical mixing in the water body. Subsequently the plumes disappear as the bottom boundary layer is dismantled, the bottom boundary layer is re-established, and the plumes re-formed. This paper will focus on characterising the first and the second stages. Accordingly, the onset of convection, plume rise height, and plume rise velocity are investigated through analysis of the PIV and shadowgraph images and compared with previously published scaling.

The utilization of outdoor spaces is affected by its thermal environment, and wind, which determines the convective heat loss from the human body, is one of the most influencing factors of thermal comfort. There is a lack of study of the correlation between the convective heat loss and the wind turbulence at the pedestrian height. In this study, we measured the wind speed and turbulence characteristics within the first 2-m above ground level at three city green-spaces surrounded by buildings of different heights and densities. To accurately calculate the turbulence intensity from the time-series of wind velocity data, the synoptic trend was removed, otherwise it may cause over-estimation of the 10-min average turbulence intensity by 30–60%. The present onsite wind measurements show that the average turbulence intensity ranges from 22 to 48%, and the turbulence scale is within 1.2–12.0 m. Since wind effect on convective heat transfer is mediated through its impact on the convective heat transfer coefficient, which is often obtained experimentally in a controlled environment, the onsite wind data from this study provides a reference for the design of the experimental conditions.

We report the first definitive Nusselt number scale of thermal boundary layers from curved surfaces characterized by the proposed non-dimensional curvature parameter ξ = R 0/(H Ra −1/4), where R 0 denotes the radius of a curved surface, H denotes the corresponding finite height, and Ra denotes the global Rayleigh number of a virtual reference thermal boundary layer on a vertical flat surface. The Nusselt number scale is given by Nu ∼ ξ −1/5 Ra 1/4 in which Nu ∼ Ra 1/4 is the scale for the flat surface case, revealing that curved thermal boundary layers could present times-of-magnitude larger heat flux with the curvature parameter being ξ ≪ 1. The velocity and thickness scales are also given by V s ∼ R 0 2 / 5 R a 3 / 5 H 7 / 5 κ and Δ T ∼ R 0 1 / 5 H 4 / 5 R a 1 / 5 .

Urban residents are increasingly encouraged to go outside for recreational and relaxing purposes, which may improve personal health and reduce building energy consumption. Therefore, it is important to understand the heat transfer between human body and surrounding urban outdoor environments. This study aims to predict the convective heat loss from a human body subject to urban outdoor wind environments. Firstly, the effects of the wind velocity and turbulent conditions on the convective heat loss from human body are investigated through a computational thermal manikin model, which is validated against published experimental data. Subsequently, wind data from onsite measurements in the city of Sydney, Australia is used to predict human body's convective heat loss using numerically obtained empirical correlations. The present result shows that the convective heat loss of most body segments increases with increasing wind velocity and turbulent intensity and decreasing turbulence length scale. Empirical correlations for predicting the convective heat transfer coefficients as a function of the wind velocity, turbulent intensity and turbulence length scale are derived based on simple-geometry assumptions. It is found that, at a given wind velocity with the ranges of the turbulence conditions from the field measurements, the variations between the high and low values of the convective heat transfer coefficient can be up to 67%. The results of this study demonstrate the significance of capturing the turbulent wind conditions for accurately predicting heat loss for outdoor thermal comfort studies.

A transient heat balance model (THBM) based on energy conservation is developed for predicting the thermal performance of a semi-transparent water wall system. In order to validate the THBM against field measurements, real climate conditions in Sydney, Australia are adopted and the time variations of both internal and external convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients are calculated using empirical correlations from the literature. An alternative concrete wall model is also developed for further validation of the THBM. Good agreements between the THBM simulation and field data are achieved for both the water wall and concrete wall systems. The validated THBM is then adopted in a sensitivity analysis in order to assess the thermal performance of the semi-transparent water wall system under different configurations. It is found that the daily maximum water and air temperatures decrease significantly with the decrease of the transmissivity of the semi-transparent panels, whereas an increase of the attenuation coefficient of solar radiation in water has an insignificant impact on the water and air temperatures. The present results also indicated that increasing the thickness of the water column can reduce the fluctuations of the water temperature and the diurnal peak air temperature. From the practical application point of view, reducing the transmissivity of the external panel provides the most effective way to mitigate over-heating in the semi-transparent water wall system.

The thermal performance of an opaque water wall system is numerically investigated using the shear-stress transport (SST) k–ω turbulence model and the Discrete Ordinates radiation model for typical winter and summer climate conditions in Sydney, Australia. With a periodic sol-air temperature specified on the outside Perspex panel, the energy performance of the water wall system is examined over a range of water wall thicknesses. The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is compared with an experimentally validated transient heat balance model (THBM), and a fair agreement between the CFD model and the THBM results is achieved. The present numerical results indicate that the performance of the opaque water wall system is improved by increasing the thickness of the water column under the winter climate condition in Sydney. It is also found that less supplementary energy is required in winter than that in summer in order to maintain a comfortable interior temperature. Further, a comparison between the present water wall system and a conventional concrete wall system shows that the water wall system performs significantly better than the concrete wall system of the same thickness in the winter climate of Sydney, whereas both the water wall and concrete wall systems have a similar performance in terms of energy savings in the summer climate of Sydney.

The ‘natural transition’ of a natural convection boundary layer adjacent to an isothermally heated vertical surface is investigated by means of three-dimensional direct numerical simulation (DNS). In order to trigger ‘natural transition’ numerically, spatially and temporally random perturbations are introduced into the upstream boundary layer. The propagation of the random perturbations in the streamwise direction is observed. It is found that there exist two competing wavenumbers of spanwise vortical structures, one large and the other small. The large wavenumber dominates in the upstream boundary layer, whereas the small wavenumber dominates in the downstream boundary layer. The streamwise evolution of the mean (time-averaged) streamwise vorticity observed at planes perpendicular to the heated surface in general reveals two- and three-layer longitudinal roll structures. Nonlinear processes in a transitioning natural convection boundary layer are also analysed using Bicoherence method. The transition route and mechanism are discussed based on the power spectra and Bicoherence spectra of the temperature time series obtained in the boundary layer. A spectrum filling process during the ‘natural transition’ to turbulence is also observed, which is qualitatively similar to that observed in Blasius boundary layers.

The buoyancy-induced air flow through a two-dimensional vertical ventilation channel is calculated. One of the channel walls is heated uniformly, and the other wall is adiabatic. A thin baffle is placed on the heated wall to manipulate the air flow through the channel. Numerical results are obtained for baffles of different lengths and placed at various heights along the heated wall. It is found that the baffle is effective in weakening a reverse flow at the exit of the channel, and significant enhancement of ventilation performance may be achieved with the presence of the baffle.

This paper presents a numerical procedure for modelling the thermal performance of ventilated hollow core slabs (VHCS). A turbulence model suitable for this purpose is identified first by considering a smooth horizontal pipe subjected to turbulent mixed convention conditions typical of VHCSs. Comparison of the fully-developed dimensionless velocity (u+) and temperature (T+) profiles as well as the Nusselt numbers (Nu) predicted by five different turbulence models against empirical expressions available in the literature shows that the Standard and Realisable k-ε models provide the best overall predictions of u+, T+ and Nu. Since the Standard k-ε model gives slightly better estimates of the Nu values, it is adopted to model the thermal performance of a VHCS geometry for which experimental thermal responses are reported in the literature. The numerical predictions of local temperatures within the VHCS agree well with the experimental measurements, and hence the Standard k-ε model is recommended here for the modeling of VHCSs.

Heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems consume almost half of the total energy consumption in buildings. In order to reduce the energy consumption of HVAC systems in buildings, different passive heating and cooling strategies and thermal energy storage systems have been adopted. Water wall is an excellent short-term thermal energy storage system which can be used to maintain thermal comfort in buildings while reducing the heating and/or cooling load of the buildings. A significant amount of research work on water wall has been carried out since the 1980s. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the previous studies of water wall systems, focussing mainly on the performance of various configurations of water wall systems and the different research approaches adopted in the literature. The advantages and disadvantages of the different research approaches have been highlighted. It is revealed that the existing water wall research has been based mainly on an energy balance model and experimental modelling, but CFD (computational fluid dynamics) modelling has attracted little attention. Moreover, this review has identified several gaps in the water wall research for further attention.

On-road remote sensing (RS) is a rapid, non-intrusive and economical tool to monitor and control the emissions of in-use vehicles, and currently is gaining popularity globally. However, a majority of studies used a single RS technique, which may bias the measurements since RS only captures a snapshot of vehicle emissions. This study aimed to use a unique dual RS technique to assess the characteristics of on-road vehicle emissions. The results show that instantaneous vehicle emissions are highly dynamic under real-world driving conditions. The two emission factors measured by the dual RS technique show little correlation, even under the same driving condition. This indicates that using the single RS technique may be insufficient to accurately represent the emission level of a vehicle based on one measurement. To increase the accuracy of identifying high-emitting vehicles, using the dual RS technique is essential. Despite little correlation, the dual RS technique measures the same average emission factors as the single RS technique does when a large number of measurements are available. Statistical analysis shows that both RS systems demonstrate the same Gamma distribution with ≥200 measurements, leading to converged mean emission factors for a given vehicle group. These findings point to the need for a minimum sample size of 200 RS measurements in order to generate reliable emission factors for on-road vehicles. In summary, this study suggests that using the single or dual RS technique will depend on the purpose of applications. Both techniques have the same accuracy in calculating average emission factors when sufficient measurements are available, while the dual RS technique is more accurate in identifying high-emitters based on one measurement only.

Antifouling and drag reduction are two critical issues for the shipping industry. Previous studies have revealed that biomimetic shell surfaces have distinct antifouling features. In this study, ten simplified surface microstructures with the same cross-section area are designed based on the antifouling scale of the shell surface morphology. Turbulent flow over the riblet structures is simulated using a finite volume based CFD solver with the Shear Stress Transport k-ω model to examine the effects of the riblet structures on skin friction with mean flow velocities ranging from 1 to 7 m/s. The corresponding dimensionless square root of the groove cross-section area is l g + ≈4.5–25.6. Considering the predicted drag performance and issues concerning riblet tip rounding and fabrication, an optimal geometry with both antifouling and drag reduction features has been identified. The present study confirms that the riblets lift off streamwise vortices, pushing the high turbulent kinetic energy region away from the surface, and impede the spanwise movement of streamwise vortices, leading to skin-friction reduction. Further, the investigation of the effect of the riblet interval on the drag behaviour indicates the existence of a balance point between the wetted perimeter and the total area of the riblet surface for minimizing drag.

Local air circulation is influenced by the drag forces exerted by urban vegetation. In this study, tree canopy parameterization in computational fluid dynamics (CFD) with source term modifications is conducted at the tree scale, which builds upon the models previously used in the literature. A simplified three-dimensional model representing tree canopies is resolved and validated against available wind tunnel experiment. The prediction of turbulence kinetic energy (TKE) is shown to be highly sensitive to the model coefficients in the source term of turbulence dissipation rate (TDR). No optimal set of the model coefficients in the TDR source term can be identified. However, C e 4 > C e5 is found to better reproduce the turbulent quantities behind the canopy than C e4 = C e5 . The reduction of C e 5 value from 1.5 to 0.4 yields a higher TDR source term level by one order of magnitude. The prediction of the mean velocity is primarily controlled by the form drag coefficient, which is heavily correlated to all source terms and their components. Results indicate the feasibility of using a more straightforward modification method in the vegetated microclimate simulations by only adding momentum source terms.

s This paper reports a numerical investigation of combined solar chimney and water wall for building ventilation and thermal comfort. The effects of major design parameters including glass panel thickness, air gap width and water column thickness are investigated with CFD simulations. The results show that the combined system is capable of providing around-the-clock ventilation with a daily average of 4.1 air changes per hour while maintaining the daily average of the room temperature 4.8 °C above that of the ambient. The overall performance of the combined system may be further improved by reducing the glass panel thickness or applying solar control tinting to the water wall assembly, and as much as 7.3% and 5.2% improvements in the ventilation rate and the averaged room temperature respectively can be achieved. Increasing the water column thickness by 0.1 m leads to 4.9% or more improvement in the ventilation rate but will cause the averaged room temperature to drop by 6.4% when the water column thickness is increased to 0.3 m. Increasing the air gap width from 0.1 m to 0.2 m leads to 13.9% improvement in the ventilation rate without affecting the averaged room temperature much. However, further increasing the air gap width only has a minor impact on the ventilation rate.

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Turbulent natural convection with and without radiation transfer in two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) air-filled differentially heated cavities is numerically investigated using various RANS (Reynolds Averaged Navier–Stokes) turbulence models and the Discrete Ordinates radiation model. Five different two-equation eddy-viscosity models including the standard k–e model, the renormalization group (RNG) k–e model, the realisable k–e model, the standard k–ω model and the shear-stress transport (SST) k–ω model are selected for comparison. Qualitative and quantitative data are presented to demonstrate the effects of three-dimensionality, radiation transfer and the thermal boundary conditions on the horizontal surfaces on the numerical solution of the convective flow in the cavity. The present numerical results are compared against published experimental and direct numerical simulation data. It is found that the predicted thermal stratification in the interior of the cavity is improved when the simulation is extended from 2D to 3D and when the effect of radiation transfer is accounted for. The discrepancy with regard to the interior stratification between the experiment and numerical simulation is mainly caused by the negligence of radiation transfer. The thermal boundary conditions on the horizontal surfaces also have a significant impact on the numerical solution, especially when the radiation transfer is not accounted for. Further, the present results show that all the RANS models are capable of capturing the main features of the flow and the overall performance of these turbulence models in terms of predicting time-averaged quantities is acceptable. It is found that the variation of the numerical results obtained with the three k–e models is very small, whereas the discrepancy between the two k–ω models is significant. The SST k–ω model has the best overall performance and the standard k–ω model has the worst overall performance.

This paper considers linear and oscillatory behaviours of the natural convection boundary layer induced by the absorption of incoming radiation in response to constant and time-varying (ramp) thermal forcing. The considered configuration is relevant to the flow in littoral regions of lakes and reservoirs in response to the daytime thermal forcing due to solar radiation. The absorption of the incoming solar radiation is depth-dependent, following Beer’s law, whilst the residual radiation at the bottom bathymetry is absorbed and released back to the water body as a boundary flux. Therefore, a potentially unstable thermal boundary layer forms adjacent to the bottom bathymetry and the associated thermoconvective instability induces vertical mixing in the form of rising plumes (i.e. intermittent convection). The linear theory is applied to investigate the incipient evolution of the instability, and direct comparisons of linear and direct stability analyses are performed. The fastest growing mode and the corresponding temporal growth rate obtained via a quasi-static linear stability analysis are shown to be in excellent agreement with the results of the direct stability analysis based on numerical simulations of the flow. Further, the time and frequency scales of the unstable bottom thermal boundary layer are derived via a local Rayleigh number analysis. It is then demonstrated that the boundary layer response to the time-varying thermal forcing is in equilibrium with the forcing intensity at each instant of time.

The transient stability of penetrative convection induced by internal heating coupled with a Robin (or third kind) boundary condition is investigated by adopting different transient approaches. A Robin boundary condition introduces a heat exchange coefficient as an additional parameter. In the system, a destabilising boundary flux is determined by the temperature increase of the fluid adjacent to the boundary, which is in turn controlled by the internal heat source, thus the boundary flux increases gradually with time. The study shows that the stability properties of the flow are independent of the Prandtl number and the transient approach being used. Further, the results of the present study demonstrate the effect of varying the heat exchange coefficient on the critical conditions and the formation of primary convection rolls. Interestingly, the horizontal and vertical length scales of the convection rolls are found to be insensitive to the value of the heat exchange coefficient, whilst the onset time of the penetrative convection is strongly dependent on this parameter.

This paper reports a numerical investigation of the buoyancy induced turbulent air flow in an inclined passive wall solar chimney (IPWSC) attached to a room (ventilated space) for ventilation applications over a range of controlling parameters. The standard k − ɛ turbulence model has been employed to model air turbulence in the solar chimney system. With an isoflux heating condition specified on the absorber wall, the ventilation performance of the IPWSC design has been examined over the Rayleigh number range of 1.36 × 10 13 ≤ Ra ≤ 1.36 × 10 16 and inclination angles from 0 to 6. The present numerical result shows that the turbulent kinetic energy and turbulent intensity in the solar chimney decrease with the increase of the inclination of the passive wall. The effectiveness of the IPWSC design for enhancing the thermally driven ventilation has been confirmed. Additional simulations have been carried out with a standalone solar chimney model. The result shows that the standalone model over-predicts the mass flow rate compared to that predicted by the attached model. The average difference in the predicted mass flow rates between the standalone model and the attached model with inclination angles from 0 to 6 at a representative Rayleigh number of Ra = 1.36 × 10 14 is around 10%.

The separation of plumes from an adiabatic horizontal thin fin attached to a sidewall of a differentially heated cavity at quasi-steady stage is experimentally and numerically studied at three Rayleigh numbers (0.92 × 10 9 , 1.84 × 10 9 and 3.68 × 10 9 ) and over a range of fin positions. Regular plume separation is observed over the present range of parameters during the quasi-steady stage. Both experimental and numerical results reveal that the plume separation frequency increases with the Rayleigh number and decreases with the fin height measured from the leading edge. A higher Rayleigh number leads to a more unstable flow above the horizontal thin fin which in turn leads to a higher plume separation frequency. The decrease of the plume separation frequency with the increasing fin height is mainly due to the reduction of the adverse temperature gradient in the unstable layer above the thin fin as a result of the cavity-wide temperature stratification. It is further revealed that the heat transfer through the sidewall is improved by the presence of the thin fin. An optimum fin height for maximum heat transfer enhancement has been identified for the case with a Rayleigh number of 0.92 × 10 9 . For the other two higher Rayleigh number cases considered in this study, the heat transfer through the sidewall monotonically decreases with the fin height.

The present study considers the early stage of the flow development in a water-filled, three-dimensional parallelepiped cavity subject to solar radiation. The thermal structure consists of an upper stable stratification due to internal heating, provided by the direct absorption of radiation, and a bottom potentially unstable boundary layer due to the absorption and re-emission of the residual radiation by the bottom boundary. The growth of the competing thermal layers and the stability properties of the bottom thermal boundary layer are investigated by means of a scaling analysis and a direct stability analysis based on three-dimensional numerical simulation. The scaling relations are benchmarked against the numerical simulation, and the effects of the normalised water depth, the Rayleigh number and the box aspect ratio on the thermal instability are studied.

This study focuses on the marginal stability of the natural convection flow induced by the absorption of radiation. Non-uniform internal heating associated with the absorption of radiation following Beer’s law and the absorption and re-emission of residual radiation by the bottom boundary wall lead to a nonlinear base temperature profile that evolves with time. A horizontal throughflow and lateral confinement are incorporated in the analysis, and two forms of convective instability, i.e. longitudinal and transverse rolls, are investigated. It is shown that the formation of longitudinal rolls, with their axes parallel to the throughflow direction, is not affected by the presence of the throughflow. For transverse rolls, with their axes perpendicular to the throughflow direction, however, the throughflow is shown to have a stabilising effect, with the critical Rayleigh number increasing with the increasing throughflow Reynolds number. It follows that longitudinal rolls are the preferred form of instability in laterally unconfined domains for any nonzero Reynolds number and in confined domains if the Reynolds number is greater than a critical value. The value of the critical Reynolds number, which separates the preferred mode of instability, is found to rapidly reduce with increasing lateral extent and approaches zero for a normalised lateral extent greater than 2.0. The lateral confinement is also shown to have a stabilising effect for both longitudinal and transverse rolls, with the critical Rayleigh number increasing with the reducing lateral extent. It is shown that the lateral confinement only substantially affects the wave number of the rolls with their axes parallel to the confining walls but not the rolls with their axes perpendicular to the confining walls.