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Faecalibacterium prausnitzii (F. prausnitzii) is a bacterial taxon in the human gut with anti-inflammatory properties, and this may contribute to the beneficial effects of healthy eating habits. However, little is known about the nutrients that enhance the growth of F. prausnitzii other than simple sugars and fibers. Here, we combined dietary and microbiome data from the American Gut Project (AGP) to identify nutrients that may be linked to the relative abundance of F. prausnitzii. Using a machine learning approach in combination with univariate analyses, we identified that sugar alcohols, carbocyclic sugar, and vitamins may contribute to F. prausnitzii growth. We next explored the effects of these nutrients on the growth of two F. prausnitzii strains in vitro and observed robust and strain-dependent growth patterns on sorbitol and inositol, respectively. In the context of a complex community using in vitro fermentation, neither inositol alone nor in combinations with vitamin B exerted a significant growth-promoting effect on F. prausnitzii, partly due to high variability among the fecal microbiota community from four healthy donors. However, the fecal communities that showed an increase in F. prausnitzii on inulin also responded with at least 60% more F. prausnitzii on any of inositol containing media than control. Future nutritional studies aiming to increase the relative abundance of F. prausnitzii should explore a personalized approach accounting for strain-level genetic variations and community-level microbiome composition.

Faecalibacterium prausnitzii(F. prausnitzii) is a bacterial taxon of the human gut with anti-inflammatory properties and negative associations with chronic inflammatory conditions.F. prausnitziimay be one of key species contributing to the effects of healthy eating habits, and yet little is known about the nutrients that enhance the growth ofF. prausnitziiother than simple sugars and fibers. Here we combined dietary and microbiome data from the American Gut Project (AGP) to identify nutrients that may be linked to the relative abundance ofF. prausnitzii. Using a machine learning approach in combination with univariate analyses, we identified that sugar alcohols, carbocyclic sugar and vitamins may contribute toF. prausnitziigrowth. We next explored the effects of these nutrients on the growth of twoF. prausnitziistrainsin vitroand observed strain dependent growth patterns on the nutrient tested. In the context of a complex community usingin vitrofermentation, none of the tested nutrients and nutrient combinations exerted a significant growth-promoting effect onF. prausnitziidue to high variability in batch responses. A positive association betweenF. prausnitziiand butyrate concentrations was observed. Future nutritional studies aiming to increase relative abundance ofF. prausnitziishould explore a personalized approach accounting for strain-level genetic variations and community-level microbiome composition.

Background In observational studies, coffee consumption has been consistently associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Trials examining the effect of coffee consumption on glucose metabolism have been limited by the use of surrogate insulin sensitivity indices, small sample sizes, lack of blinding, and short follow-up duration. Objectives We aimed to overcome limitations of previously conducted coffee trials in a randomized placebo-controlled trial of the effect of coffee consumption on insulin sensitivity. Methods We conducted a 24-wk randomized placebo-controlled trial in 126 overweight, non-insulin sensitive (HOMA-IR ≥1.30), Chinese, Malay, and Asian-Indian males and females aged 35-69 y. Participants were randomly assigned to receive 4 cups of instant regular coffee (n = 62) or 4 cups of a coffee-like placebo beverage (n = 64) per day. The primary outcome was the amount of glucose metabolized per kilogram of body weight per minute (Mbw) assessed during steady-state conditions with a hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp. Secondary outcomes included other clamp-based insulin sensitivity measures, biological mediators of insulin sensitivity, and measures of fasting glucose metabolism. Results Coffee consumption did not significantly change insulin sensitivity compared with placebo (percentage mean difference in Mbw = 4.0%; 95% CI: -8.3, 18.0%; P = 0.53). Furthermore, no significant differences in fasting plasma glucose (2.9%; 95% CI: -0.4, 6.3%; P = 0.09) or biological mediators of insulin resistance, such as plasma adiponectin (2.3%; 95% CI: -1.4, 6.2%; P = 0.22), were observed between coffee and placebo groups over 24 wk of intervention. Participants in the coffee arm experienced a loss of fat mass (FM) (-3.7%; 95% CI: -6.3, -1.1%; P = 0.006) and reduction in urinary creatinine concentrations (-21.2%; 95% CI: -31.4, -9.5%; P = 0.001) compared with participants in the placebo arm over 24 wk of intervention. Conclusions Consuming 4 cups/d of caffeinated coffee for 24 wk had no significant effect on insulin sensitivity or biological mediators of insulin resistance but was associated with a modest loss of FM and reduction in urinary creatinine concentrations.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01738399. Registered on November 28, 2012. Trial sponsor: Nestle Research, Lausanne, Switzerland. Trial site: National University of Singapore.

The gut microbiome and lipid metabolism are both recognized as essential components in the maintenance of metabolic health. The mechanisms involved are multifactorial and (especially for microbiome) poorly defined. A strategic approach to investigate the complexity of the microbial influence on lipid metabolism would facilitate determination of relevant molecular mechanisms for microbiome-targeted therapeutics. E. coli is associated with obesity and metabolic syndrome and we used this association in conjunction with gnotobiotic models to investigate the impact of E. coli on lipid metabolism. To address the complexities of the integration of the microbiome and lipid metabolism, we developed transcriptomics-driven lipidomics (TDL) to predict the impact of E. coli colonization on lipid metabolism and established mediators of inflammation and insulin resistance including arachidonic acid metabolism, alterations in bile acids and dietary lipid absorption. A microbiome-related therapeutic approach targeting these mechanisms may therefore provide a therapeutic avenue supporting maintenance of metabolic health., Integrative Lipidomics: Microbiome regulation of lipid metabolism Microbes multifactorially impact host lipid metabolism bearing a significant impact in health and disease. A team led by Mojgan Masoodi and Scott Parkinson at Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences (NIHS) developed an integrative data driven approach for predictive lipidomics investigations of host-microbial impacts on lipid metabolism. Results of in-vivo studies with germ-free mice inoculated with E. coli and in-vitro studies demonstrated the multifactorial nature of the impact of E. coli on arachidonic acid metabolism in the ileum and altered host inflammation and lipid absorption. The findings provide insights into understanding the host-microbiome interactions and identifying microbiome-related solutions for maintaining health and tackling disease. The systems approach presented is applicable to investigate broad range of microbiome dependent and independent alterations in host lipid metabolism.

Summary The circadian clock and associated feeding rhythms have a profound impact on metabolism and the gut microbiome. To what extent microbiota reciprocally affect daily rhythms of physiology in the host remains elusive. Here, we analyzed transcriptome and metabolome profiles of male and female germ-free mice. While mRNA expression of circadian clock genes revealed subtle changes in liver, intestine, and white adipose tissue, germ-free mice showed considerably altered expression of genes associated with rhythmic physiology. Strikingly, the absence of the microbiome attenuated liver sexual dimorphism and sex-specific rhythmicity. The resulting feminization of male and masculinization of female germ-free animals is likely caused by altered sexual development and growth hormone secretion, associated with differential activation of xenobiotic receptors. This defines a novel mechanism by which the microbiome regulates host metabolism., Graphical Abstract, Highlights • The microbiome is required for sexual dimorphism in gene expression and metabolism • Most already-described changes in GF mice are hallmarks of a feminized metabolism • Altered sexual maturation and GH secretion cause the damping of sexual dimorphism • Microbiota-derived metabolites and ghrelin likely drive these alterations, Physiology is dynamic over the day and different between sexes. Weger et al. show that the microbiome play a key role in sustaining these sex differences in gene expression and metabolism by ensuring proper sexual maturation and growth hormone secretion. Microbiota-derived metabolites and ghrelin likely drive these sexually dimorphic dynamics.

Background: In observational studies, coffee consumption has been consistently associated with a lower risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Trials examining the effect of coffee consumption on glucose metabolism have been limited by the use of surrogate insulin sensitivity indices, small sample sizes, lack of blinding, and short follow-up duration. We aimed to overcome these limitations in a randomized placebo-controlled trial examining the effects of coffee consumption on insulin sensitivity. Methodology: We conducted a 24-week randomized placebo-controlled trial in 126 overweight, insulin-resistant (HOMA-IR ≥ 1.30), Chinese, Malay and Asian-Indian males and females aged 35-69 years. Participants were randomly assigned to receive 4 cups of instant regular coffee (n=62) or 4 cups of a coffee-like placebo beverage (n=64) per day. The primary outcome was bodyweight-standardized M-value (M bw ) assessed with a hyperinsulinemic euglycemic clamp. Secondary outcomes included other clamp-based insulin sensitivity measures, biological mediators of insulin sensitivity, and measures of fasting glucose metabolism, body weight and composition. Results: Coffee consumption did not significantly change insulin sensitivity as compared with placebo [% mean difference in M bw : 0.3% (95% CI: -12.0% to 14.2%), P =0.97]. Furthermore, no significant differences in fasting plasma glucose [3.0% (-1.1% to 7.3%), P =0.16] or biological mediators of insulin resistance, such as plasma adiponectin [1.5% (-3.4% to 6.6%), P =0.55], were observed between coffee and placebo groups after 24 weeks of intervention. Coffee consumption led to a loss of body weight as compared with placebo [-1.2% (-2.3% to -0.1%), P =0.03] resulting from a decrease in fat mass [-3.7% (-7.1% to -0.2%), P =0.04] . Conclusions: Consuming 4 cups per day of caffeinated coffee for 24 weeks had no significant effect on insulin sensitivity or biological mediators of insulin resistance. Coffee consumption led to a modest decrease in body fat as compared with coffee abstinence. Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01738399. Registered on 28 November 2012. Trial Sponsor: Nestlé Research Center, Lausanne, Switzerland. Trial Site: National University of Singapore.

Escherichia coli is one of the common inhabitants of the mammalian gastrointestinal track. We isolated a strain from an ob/ob mouse and performed whole-genome sequencing, which yielded a chromosome of ~5.1 Mb and three plasmids of ~160 kb, ~6 kb, and ~4 kb.

The importance of gut microbes to metabolic health is becoming more evident and nutrition-based therapies to alter the composition of bacterial communities to manage metabolic disease are an attractive avenue to ameliorate some effects of Western diets. While the composition of gut microbial communities can vary significantly across disease states, it is not well known if these communities have common responses to nutritional interventions. To better understand fiber-bacterial community interactions, we collected biological parameters and fecal samples of overweight non-diabetic (OND) and diabetic (OD) individuals before and after daily supplementation of 2.8 g β-glucan on their habitual diet for 30 days. Fecal bacterial communities in an age-matched cohort were measured by sequencing partial 16S rRNA genes and imputed metagenomic content. Unexpectedly, we observed disconnected responses of biological measurements and the bacterial community. Based on average effect size, biological measurements were greater in the OND group while effects on the bacterial community were greatest on the OD cohort, and we suspect these observations are due to the significantly lower alpha diversity in the OD cohort. Our data indicate that responses to fiber supplementation are cohort specific and this should be considered when manipulating the microbiome via fiber supplementation.

The growing epidemic of obesity is no longer restricted to developed countries. In 2005, the World Health Organization alerted that there were approximately 400 million obese adults worldwide, and approximately 20 million children worldwide were overweight. Obesity is a complex health issue with serious consequences such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and others. Behavioral, genetic and environmental factors have been addressed as contributing factors for overweight and obesity. Recent evidence indicates that the community of microorganisms that dwell in the gut, known as the gut microbiota, can influence nutrient absorption and energy storage. The microbiotic composition has been shown to differ between obese and lean mice and humans alike, suggesting that modulation of the gut microbiotic composition offers a new avenue for the treatment of obesity and overweight. This review revises the available scientific evidence supporting these speculations. Recent results obtained from studies focusing on the contributions of gut microbiota to diabetes are also summarized in this review.

L’épidémie d’obésité qui se developpe n’est plus limitée aux pays industrialisés. En 2005, l’Organisation Mondiale de la Santé a lancé un cri d’alarme en annonçant qu’environ 400 millions d’adultes étaient obèses et que 20 millions d’enfants étaient en surpoids au plan mondial. L’obésité est un problème complexe de santé dont les conséquences sont graves, notamment sous la forme d’un diabète de type 2, d’affections cardiovasculaires, et d’autres encore. La contribution de facteurs comportementaux, génétiques et environnementaux à l’obésité et au surpoids a fait l’objet d’études. Des données récentes indiquent que la communauté des micro-organismes qui résident dans l’intestin, appelée microbiote intestinal, peut influencer l’absorption des nutriments et le stockage de l’énergie. Des données indiquent que la composition du microbiote diffère entre les souris obèses et les souris minces et qu’il en est de même chez l’homme, ce qui suggère que sa modulation pourrait être une nouvelle perspective pour le traitement de l’obésité et du surpoids. Nous analyserons ici les données scientifiques disponibles à l’appui de cette hypothèse. Nous résumerons également les résultats d’études récentes centrées sur les contributions du microbiote intestinal au diabète.

La creciente epidemia de obesidad ya ha dejado de estar restringida sólo a los países desarrollados. En el 2005, la Organización Mundial de la Salud alertó que en todo el mundo había aproximadamente 400 millones de adultos obesos y que aproximadamente 20 millones de niños presentaban sobrepeso. La obesidad es un problema sanitario complejo y de consecuencias graves, como la diabetes de tipo 2 y las enfermedades cardiovasculares y de otro tipo. Se han señalado factores conductuales, genéticos y medioambientales como contributivos del sobrepeso y la obesidad. Datos recientes indican que la población de microorganismos residentes en el intestino, conocida como microbiota intestinal, puede influir sobre la absorción de nutrientes y el almacenamiento de energía. Se ha demostrado que la composición macrobiótica difiere tanto entre ratones como entre humanos obesos y magros, lo que deja entrever que la modulación de la composición microbiótica intestinal ofrece una nueva vía para el tratamiento de la obesidad y el sobrepeso. En esta revisión se recuerdan los datos científicos disponibles que respaldan estas especulaciones. También se recopilan en esta revisión los resultados recientes obtenidos en estudios destinados a las contribuciones de la microbiota intestinal a la diabetes.

In this study we investigated the structural requirements for inhibition of human salivary alpha-amylase by flavonoids. Four flavonols and three flavones, out of the 19 flavonoids tested, exhibited IC50 values less than 100 microM against human salivary alpha-amylase activity. Structure-activity relationships of these inhibitors by computational ligand docking showed that the inhibitory activity of flavonols and flavones depends on (i) hydrogen bonds between the hydroxyl groups of the polyphenol ligands and the catalytic residues of the binding site and (ii) formation of a conjugated pi-system that stabilizes the interaction with the active site. Our findings show that certain naturally occurring flavonoids act as inhibitors of human alpha-amylase, which makes them promising candidates for controlling the digestion of starch and postprandial glycemia.

The gut microbiota is involved in many aspects of host physiology but its role in body weight and glucose metabolism remains unclear. Here we studied the compositional changes of gut microbiota in diet-induced obesity mice that were conventionally raised or received microbiota transplantation. In conventional mice, the diversity of the faecal microbiota was weakly associated with 1st week weight gain but transferring the microbiota of mice with contrasting weight gain to germfree mice did not change obesity development or feed efficiency of recipients regardless whether the microbiota was taken before or after 10 weeks high fat (HF) feeding. Interestingly, HF-induced glucose intolerance was influenced by microbiota inoculation and improved glucose tolerance was associated with a low Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio. Transplantation of Bacteroidetes rich microbiota compared to a control microbiota ameliorated glucose intolerance caused by HF feeding. Altogether, our results demonstrate that gut microbiota is involved in the regulation of glucose metabolism and the abundance of Bacteroidetes significantly modulates HF-induced glucose intolerance but has limited impact on obesity in mice. Our results suggest that gut microbiota is a part of complex aetiology of insulin resistance syndrome, individual microbiota composition may cause phenotypic variation associated with HF feeding in mice.

Development of NGS has revolutionized the analysis in microbial ecology contributing to our deeper understanding of microbiota in health and disease. However, the quality, quantity and confidence of summarized taxonomic abundances are in need of further scrutiny due to sample dependent and independent effects. In this article we introduce ‘AVIT (Abundance and Variability In Taxonomy), an unbiased method to enrich for assigned members of microbial communities. As opposed to using a priori thresholds, ‘AVIT uses inherent abundance and variability of taxa in a dataset to determine the inclusion or rejection of each taxa for further downstream analysis. Using in-vitro and in-vivo studies, we benchmarked performance and parameterized ‘AVIT to establish a framework for investigating the dynamic range of microbial community membership in clinically relevant scenarios.

Proteins are needed for the development and sustainability of life. They are the molecular machines and building blocks in the human body that drive or exert most biological functions and confer structure and function to cell and tissue architecture. Dietary proteins provide essential amino acids and complement lipid and carbohydrate as a major source of energy. Therefore, humans must consume a sufficient amount and quality of proteins to stay healthy and avoid deficiencies. Even with a reasonable amount of intake, variability in protein consumption can result in measurable health consequences in specific conditions. This said, dietary protein delivers more than energy and building blocks to the human body: the pools of body, tissue, and cell proteins, peptides, and amino acids are under complex metabolic control, resulting in a highly dynamic protein turnover, that is, the interplay between synthesis and degradation. Proteins also contain peptide sequences that can be interpreted as bioactive precursors which can be liberated upon digestion to exert biological functions locally (e.g., in the gut) or systemically (i.e., via the bloodstream). In this chapter, we will first review holistic readouts of protein intake assessed by omics technologies such as gene expression, proteomics, and metabolite profiling. Second, we will look at protein benefits beyond macronutrient supply and describe how to generate, analyze, and leverage bioactive peptides. In the third part, we will discuss protein turnover as tackled by proteomics tools that allow single-protein resolution at proteome-wide scale.

Proteins are needed for the development and sustainability of life. They are the molecular machines and building blocks in the human body that drive or exert most biological functions and confer structure and function to cell and tissue architecture. Dietary proteins provide essential amino acids and complement lipid and carbohydrate as a major source of energy. Therefore, humans must consume a sufficient amount and quality of proteins to stay healthy and avoid deficiencies. Even with a reasonable amount of intake, variability in protein consumption can result in measurable health consequences in specific conditions. This said, dietary protein delivers more than energy and building blocks to the human body: the pools of body, tissue, and cell proteins, peptides, and amino acids are under complex metabolic control, resulting in a highly dynamic protein turnover, that is, the interplay between synthesis and degradation. Proteins also contain peptide sequences that can be interpreted as bioactive precursors which can be liberated upon digestion to exert biological functions locally (e.g., in the gut) or systemically (i.e., via the bloodstream). In this chapter, we will first review holistic readouts of protein intake assessed by omics technologies such as gene expression, proteomics, and metabolite profiling. Second, we will look at protein benefits beyond macronutrient supply and describe how to generate, analyze, and leverage bioactive peptides. In the third part, we will discuss protein turnover as tackled by proteomics tools that allow single-protein resolution at proteome-wide scale.

Consumption of low-carbohydrate, high-protein, high-fat diets lead to rapid weight loss but the cardioprotective effects of these diets have been questioned. We examined the impact of high-protein and high-fat diets on cholesterol metabolism by comparing the plasma cholesterol and the expression of cholesterol biosynthesis genes in the liver of mice fed a high-fat (HF) diet that has a high (H) or a low (L) protein-to-carbohydrate (P/C) ratio. H-P/C-HF feeding, compared with L-P/C-HF feeding, decreased plasma total cholesterol and increased HDL cholesterol concentrations at 4-wk. Interestingly, the expression of genes involved in hepatic steroid biosynthesis responded to an increased dietary P/C ratio by first down-regulation (2-d) followed by later up-regulation at 4-wk, and the temporal gene expression patterns were connected to the putative activity of SREBF1 and 2. In contrast, Cyp7a1, the gene responsible for the conversion of cholesterol to bile acids, was consistently up-regulated in the H-P/C-HF liver regardless of feeding duration. Over expression of Cyp7a1 after 2-d and 4-wk H-P/C-HF feeding was connected to two unique sets of transcription regulators. At both time points, up-regulation of the Cyp7a1 gene could be explained by enhanced activations and reduced suppressions of multiple transcription regulators. In conclusion, we demonstrated that the hypocholesterolemic effect of H-P/C-HF feeding coincided with orchestrated changes of gene expressions in lipid metabolic pathways in the liver of mice. Based on these results, we hypothesize that the cholesterol lowering effect of high-protein feeding is associated with enhanced bile acid production but clinical validation is warranted. (246 words).

Aim: To investigate the impact of chronic ingestion of sebacic acid (SA), a 10-carbon medium-chain dicarboxylic acid, on glycaemic control in a mouse model of type 2 diabetes (T2D). Methods: Three groups of 15 db/db mice were fed for 6 weeks either a chow diet (Ctrl) or a chow diet supplemented with 1.5 or 15% (SA1.5% and SA15%, respectively) energy from SA. Fasting glycaemia was measured once a week and HbA1c before and after supplementation. An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was performed at the end of the supplementation. Gene expression was determined by transcriptomic analysis on the liver of the Ctrl and SA15% groups. Results: After 42 days of supplementation, fasting glycaemia and HbA1c were ∼70 and 25% lower in the SA15% group compared with the other groups showing a beneficial effect of SA on hyperglycaemia. During OGTT, plasma glucose area under the curve was reduced after SA15% compared with the other groups. This effect was associated with a tendency for an improved insulin response. In the liver, Pck1 and FBP mRNA were statistically decreased in the SA15% compared with Ctrl suggesting a reduced hepatic glucose output induced by SA. Conclusion: Dietary supplementation of SA largely improves glycaemic control in a mouse model of T2D. This beneficial effect may be due to (i) an improved glucose-induced insulin secretion and (ii) a reduced hepatic glucose output.

Recent data suggest that gut microbiota plays a significant role in fat accumulation. However, it is not clear whether gut microbiota is involved in the pathophysiology of type-2 diabetes. To address this issue, we modulated gut microbiota with two combinations of antibiotics in two different mouse models with insulin resistance. Treatment with norfloxacin and ampicillin for 2 weeks reduced the cecal bacterial DNA below the level of detection in ob/ob, diet-induced obese and insulin resistance (DIO) mice, and significantly improved fasting glycemia and oral glucose tolerance of the treated animals. The enhanced insulin sensitivity was independent of food intake or adiposity because pair-fed ob/ob mice were as glucose intolerant as the untreated ob/ob mice. The reduced liver triglycerides, increased liver glycogen and improved glucose tolerance in the treated mice indicate broad impacts on metabolism by gut decontamination. The treatment with non-absorbable antibiotics polymyxin B and neomycin significantly modified cecal microbiota profile in the DIO mice, and the modified intestinal microbiota was associated with a gradual reduction in glycemia during a washout period. In summary, modulation of gut microbiota ameliorated glucose intolerance in mice and altered the hormonal, inflammatory and metabolic status of the host.

International audience; Recent data suggest that the gut microbiota plays a significant role in fat accumulation. However, it is not clear whether gut microbiota is involved in the pathophysiology of type 2 diabetes. To assess this issue, we modulated gut microbiota via antibiotics administration in two different mouse models with insulin resistance. Results from dose-determination studies showed that a combination of norfloxacin and ampicillin, at a dose of 1 g/L, maximally suppressed the numbers of cecal aerobic and anaerobic bacteria in ob/ob mice. After a 2-wk intervention with the antibiotic combination, both ob/ob and diet-induced obese and insulin-resistant mice showed a significant improvement in fasting glycemia and oral glucose tolerance. The improved glycemic control was independent of food intake or adiposity because pair-fed ob/ob mice were as glucose intolerant as the control ob/ob mice. Reduced liver triglycerides and increased liver glycogen correlated with improved glucose tolerance in the treated mice. Concomitant reduction of plasma lipopolysaccharides and increase of adiponectin further supported the antidiabetic effects of the antibiotic treatment in ob/ob mice. In summary, modulation of gut microbiota ameliorated glucose tolerance of mice by altering the expression of hepatic and intestinal genes involved in inflammation and metabolism, and by changing the hormonal, inflammatory, and metabolic status of the host.

Aminopeptidases, such as dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP-4, CD26), are potent therapeutic targets for pharmacological interventions because they play key roles in many important pathological pathways. To analyze amino-peptidase activity in vitro (including high-throughput screening [HTS]), in vivo, and ex vivo, we developed a highly sensitive and quantitative bioluminescence-based readout method. We successfully applied this method to screening drugs with potential DPP-4 inhibitory activity. Using this method, we found that cancer drug mitoxantrone possesses significant DPP-4 inhibitory activity both in vitro and in vivo. The pharmacophore of mitoxantrone was further investigated by testing a variety of its structural analogues.