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Scholars, along with the general public, historically have viewed racism as consisting of individual behaviors or institutional policies that intentionally discriminate against minority groups. Sociologist Fred Pincus introduced the concept of structural racism in his article “From Individual to Structural Discrimination” (1994), which was designed to broaden the understanding of racism by focusing on effect rather than intent. Structural racism is defined as institutional policies conceived by the dominant group as race-neutral but that have harmful effects on minority groups. Examples might include college entrance requirements organized primarily around standardized test scores, on which minority groups historically have scored lower than the dominant group; or business layoff systems organized around seniority in a society where minority groups historically have been hired last. If these example policies were instituted, minority groups would be considerably underrepresented in colleges and in the labor force. These policies, intended to be nondiscriminatory, would have negative effects on minority groups. Segregation in neighborhoods as a product of structural racism has been studied extensively and shows that these policies and disparities have adverse effects on health outcomes for minority individuals. Redlining in the 1930s, which restricted equitable housing access, resulted in limited access to health-establishing resources for minority individuals over generations. Structural racism is less visible than individual or institutional racism, making it harder to address. The effects, though, perpetuate the subordination of minority groups to the dominant group.

Social psychologist Philomena Essed coined the term “gendered racism” to refer to the way that sexism and racism interact to subordinate minority-group women. Scholars sometimes refer to minority women as a “double minority” because they are affected by cultural definitions of gender that vary by race or ethnicity. Historically, White people have defined African American women, for example, as “Aunt Jemima,” the overweight, subservient maid or housekeeper; or as a sexual object, to be used by men and then discarded; or as “beasts of burden.” These negative images, like ones for other minority women, can be traced to the historical exploitative relationship not only between White people and minority groups but also between men and women. Gendered racism has implications for minority women by restricting their access to education, limiting their occupational options, restricting their income to minimum or below-minimum wages, and making it difficult for minority families to escape poverty. Consequently, minority women lag behind White women and men of all racial and ethnic groups in terms of political, economic, cultural, and social positions.