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Introduction: Comorbid non-communicable diseases (NCDs) like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases (CVD), kidney diseases, and hypertension, could have implications for tuberculosis (TB) treatment management and increase the disease burden amongst active TB patients., Methods: This cross-sectional study aimed at profiling comorbidities amongst sputum-positive TB patients in the South West and Littoral regions of Cameroon and was relevant for improving disease management and public health interventions. Diabetes was defined by elevated blood glucose, body mass index (underweight: <18.5 kg/m 2 , normal: 18.5-<25.0 kg/m 2 , overweight: 25-<30 kg/m 2 and obese: ≥30.0 kg/m 2 ) and hypertension by elevated blood pressure levels (i.e., systolic ≥130 mmHg or diastolic ≥80 mmHg). Socio-demographic and clinical data were collected using case report forms. Descriptive analysis was performed, bivariate logistic regression analysis was computed with at least one comorbidity as the dependent variable (global model) and a multivariable logistic regression analysis was done to provide adjusted odds ratios (final model). The covariate with the highest p -value was removed until p < 0.25 cut-off, using R software version 4.3.1. p -value <0.05 at 95% confidence interval was considered statistically significant., Results: Five hundred and forty-nine sputum-positive microscopically confirmed active TB patients were enrolled into this study. Two-thirds (65.8%) of the total patients were male. Overall, 56 sputum-positive TB patients had at least one non-communicable disease, thus a prevalence of 10.2% (95% CI = 7.9-13.0). The most frequently recorded NCD was diabetes 4.4% (95% CI = 3.1-6.7) followed by kidney disease 2% (95% CI = 1.1-3.6), hypertension 0.9% (95% CI = 0.4-2.2), and CVD 0.91% (95% CI = 0.4-2.2). Three TB patients (0.6%) had all four comorbidities examined. Age group ( p < 0.001), and level of education ( p = 0.049) were factors significantly associated with having at least one comorbidity., Discussion: Our findings showed that diabetes was significantly the most prevalent comorbid NCD amongst sputum-positive TB patients ( p < 0.001). HIV status, occupation, body mass index (BMI), and alcohol intake were not significantly associated with having at least one comorbidity. Implementing public health intervention programmes such as systematic screening of TB patients for NCDs especially diabetes is highly recommended for better control of these diseases., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.

Biting midges belonging to the genus Culicoides are tiny stout-shaped hematophagous insects and are thought to transmit the filarial nematode Mansonella perstans . Little is known about the Culicoides fauna in the rain forest belt of the Littoral Region of Cameroon. This study was designed to investigate the diversity, abundance and distribution of Culicoides spp. and their role as the purported vector(s) of M. perstans . Overnight light trap collections and human landing catches (HLCs) revealed eight species of Culicoides with C. grahamii being the most abundant species followed by C. milnei . Four anthropophilic species ( C. inornatipennis , C. grahamii , C. fulvithorax and C. milnei ) were determined by the HLCs with a higher abundance in the 4-6 p.m. collections. The drop trap technique and Mp419 LAMP assay confirmed C. milnei to be the most efficient vector in enabling the development of the microfilarial stage to the infective larval form of M. perstans . The LAMP assay also revealed that natural transmission of this nematode is fostered by C. milnei and C. grahamii in the wild. In conclusion, C. milnei was shown to be the main vector of M. perstans in the rain forest belt of the Littoral Region of Cameroon.

Concomitant infections with malaria and intestinal parasitic infections may be associated with anemia in children (0-10 yr). This study determined the prevalence of co-infection with malaria and intestinal parasitic infections and determined its association with anemia in children (0-10 yr) in Tiko, Cameroon. A hospital-based cross-sectional study was carried out whereby venous blood and stool samples were collected from 377 febrile children. Blood was used to perform a full blood count. Thick and thin blood films were prepared and stained with Giemsa for malaria parasite diagnosis. The formol ether concentration technique was used to analyze the stools. Pearson's chi-square test, Student's t-test, and other statistical analyses were performed. Of the 377 participants, 139 (36.9%) were positive for malaria, 21 (5.6%) had intestinal helminths, 8 (2%) had co-infection, and 79 (21.0%) were anemic. Malaria and anemia were prevalent among the children and were significantly associated (P = 0.025). There was no statistically significant difference (P > 0.05) among age groups. Girls were more often infected with malaria (69, 37.3%), and boys were more often infected with intestinal parasites (13, 7.0%), but there was no statistical association for both malaria and intestinal parasitic infections (IPIs) for both sexes (P > 0.05). Hookworms, Ascaris lumbricoides, and Trichuris trichiura were the intestinal parasites found in this study. There was a significant association between anemia and parasitic co-infection in children (P = 0.003). Malaria and IPIs are prevalent in the Tiko municipality. They play a great role in anemia especially when there is a co-infection. Public education and awareness campaigns are necessary in this municipality., (© American Society of Parasitologists 2023.)

Background: Podoconiosis, a non-infectious disease originating from long-term exposure of bare feet to irritant red clay soil is a lifelong, disabling disease with no specific diagnostic tool, classified into 5 stages based on the severity of leg swelling (lymphoedema). Secondary bacterial infections have been suggested to cause acute dermatolymphangioadenitis (ADLA) attacks and drive disease progression. Although the North West Region of Cameroon has a proven history of podoconiosis endemicity, the bacterial composition of lymphoedema due to this condition has not been studied. Thus, this study investigated the leg bacterial diversity of patients who suffered from the lymphoedema and their susceptibility pattern to selected antibiotics., Methods: A cross-sectional study was carried out in which podoconiosis affected and non-lymphoedema individuals living in the same community were purposively selected. Samples were collected by swabbing the skin between the toes and around the anklebone, then cultured and sub-cultured on nutrient agar to obtain pure isolates. The cultured isolates were then morphologically and biochemically classified using microscopy and analytic profile index test kits, respectively. The disk diffusion technique was used to determine antibiotic susceptibility., Results: Thirty-three participants were recruited, and 249 bacterial isolates were characterized into 29 genera, 60 species; with 30 (50%) being gram positive rods, 19 (31.7%) gram positive cocci, and 11 (18.3%) gram negative rods. Thirteen gram positive rods, fifteen gram positive cocci, and eight gram negative rods of bacterial species were found only in podoconiosis individuals among which Cellulomonas spp / Microbacterium spp. (2.8%), Staphylococcus lentus (3.3%), and Burkholderia cepacia (4.0%) dominated. 90% (90%) of the bacterial isolates were sensitive to doxycycline, whereas ampicillin had a high level of intermediate resistance, and penicillin G had the greatest resistant profile., Conclusion: Our findings show that 94 (37.8%) out of 249 described bacterial isolates were exclusively found in the legs of podoconiosis individuals, and their susceptibility pattern to antibiotics was similar to that of others., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

The diagnosis of onchocerciasis in endemic areas has been demanding given the need to replace the invasive skin snip method with a more sensitive and specific rapid point-of-contact tool. Filarial antigen detection tests are better alternative methods in diagnosing Onchocercal infections, as they detect infections and could be used to monitor transmission in endemic areas following mass drug administration. With the shift in paradigme from control to elimination, a rapid point- of-contact tool is required to support elimination programs. This was a cross-sectional, community-based study conducted in 50 villages selected from six health districts using a systematic sampling technique. Individuals ≥17 years who had lived in the community for a duration of 5 years and above provided blood specimens for IgG4 antibodies testing against O. volvulus antigens. Data were analyzed using SPSS v.20 and expectation maximization to classify optical densities for positive and negative samples from ELISA results. The kappa statistics was used to measure the level of agreement between the two tests. In a total of 5001 participants which were recruited for the study, 4416 (88.3 %) participant samples passed the plate quality control criteria and were considered for the test comparison analysis. Out of the 4416 participants, 292 (6.6 %) tested positive with Ov16 RDT and 310 (7.0 %) with Ov16 ELISA. All those who tested positive with the rapid test agreed positive with ELISA. The overall percentage agreement was 99.2 %, the Kappa score of 0.936. The results obtained indicate an excellent agreement between ELISA and RDT as measured by kappa (0.936) which was statistically significant ( P<0.001 ). Our experience with the Ov16 ELISA biplex rapid test was favorable. However, the Ov16 RDT test may be more appropriate to use in remote areas for the point diagnosis of onchocerciasis in view towards achieving elimination in Africa., Competing Interests: Conflicts Of Interests The authors declare no competing interest. Declaration Of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Conventional diagnosis of filarial infections is based on morphological identification of microfilariae using light microscopy and requires considerable expertise, is time-consuming, and can be subjective. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) has advantages over microscopy or PCR because of its operational simplicity, rapidity and versatility of readout options. LAMP assays represent a major step forward in improved filarial diagnostic tools suitable for low resource settings and field applicability. The study goal was to retrospectively evaluate the performance and suitability of the O-150, RF4, and Mp419 LAMP assays for diagnosing Onchocerca volvulus , Loa loa and Mansonella perstans infections, respectively, in humans and vectors under experimental and natural field conditions. Surveys were conducted in four health districts of Cameroon using skin snip and thick blood film methods to detect skin ( O. volvulus ) and blood ( L. loa and M. perstans ) dwelling microfilaria in humans. Engorged vectors ( Simulium spp ., Chrysops spp ., and Culicoides spp.) were evaluated by LAMP. Dissected, wild-caught vectors were also analyzed. LAMP showed a prevalence of 40.4% ( O. volvulus ), 17.8% ( L. loa ) and 36.6% ( M. perstans ) versus 20.6% ( O. volvulus ), 17.4% ( L. loa ) and 33.8% ( M. perstans ) with microscopy. Simulium spp. were dissected for microscopy and pooled for LAMP. The O-150 LAMP assay infection rate was 4.3% versus 4.1% by microscopy. Chrysops spp. were dissected and analyzed individually in the LAMP assay. The RF4 LAMP assay infection rate was 23.5% versus 3.3% with microscopy. The RF4 LAMP assay also detected parasites in Chrysops spp. fed on low microfilaremic volunteers. The Mp419 LAMP assay infection rate was 0.2% for C. milnei and 0.04% for C. grahamii , while three other species were LAMP-negative. The sensitivity, species specificity, rapidity and ease of its use of these filarial LAMP assays, and validation of their performance in the field support use as alternatives to microscopy as diagnostic and surveillance tools in global health programs aimed to eliminate onchocerciasis., Competing Interests: Conflict of interest ZL and CC are employees of New England Biolabs, manufacturer of LAMP reagents described in the manuscript. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Background: Onchocerciasis control using ivermectin alone has been achieved in some endemic savannah zones of Africa. In the forest regions, the co-endemicity with Loa loa has led to severe adverse events (SAEs) resulting in poor adherence of community members to ivermectin mass drug administration (MDA). This may jeopardize achieving the interruption of transmission of onchocerciasis. Therefore, to accelerate the elimination of onchocerciasis in L. loa co-endemic zones, alternative treatment strategies (ATS) including ground larviciding may be necessary. This study aimed at identifying Simulium breeding sites, cytospecies, transmission profile, susceptibility of Simulium larvae to insecticide (temephos) and identification of some non-target aquatic fauna prior to the implementation of the COUNTDOWN consortium ground larviciding alternative strategy in the Meme River Basin in South West Cameroon., Methods: A topographic map and entomological survey were used to determine breeding sites. Larvae and adults were identified using standard identification keys. Susceptibility tests were carried out on collected larvae by exposing them to decreasing concentrations of temephos and assessing survival rates while the cytospecies were identified using cytotaxonomy. Various entomological indicators were assessed from dissected flies. Fishing was used as proxy to traps to assess some aquatic fauna at different sites., Results: Twenty-two breeding sites were prospected in the Meme River Basin with eight productive for larvae. A concentration of 0.5-0.1 mg/l temephos induced 100% larval mortality. As the concentration of temephos decreased from 0.05 to 0.0025 mg/l, mortality of larvae also decreased from 98.7 to 12%. Nine cytospecies were observed in the Meme River Basin; 13,633 flies were collected and 4033 dissected. A total of 1455 flies were parous (36.1%), 224 flies were infected (5.5%), and 64 were infective (1.6%). Aquatic fauna observed included Cyprinus spp., Clarias spp., crabs, tadpoles, beetles and larvae of damsel fly., Conclusions: Onchocerciasis is being actively transmitted within the Meme River Basin. Simulium larvae are susceptible to temephos, and nine cytospecies are present. Non-target fauna observed included fishes, frogs, crabs and insects. Besides treatment with ivermectin, vector control through ground larviciding may be a complementary strategy to accelerate onchocerciasis elimination in the study area., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Background: The impact of large scale Mass Drug Adminstration (MDA) of ivermectin on active onchocerciasis transmission by Simulium damnosum, which transmits the parasite O. volvulus is of great importance for onchocerciasis control programmes. We investigated in the Mbam river system area, the impact of MDA of ivermectin on entomological indices and also verify if there are river system factors that could have favoured the transmission of onchocerciasis in this area and contribute to the persistence of disease. We compared three independent techniques to detect Onchocerca larvae in blackflies and also analyzed the river system within 9 months post-MDA of ivermectin., Method: Simulium flies were captured before and after 1, 3, 6 and 9months of ivermectin-MDA. The biting rate was determined and 41% of the flies dissected while the rest were grouped into pools of 100 flies for DNA extraction. The extracted DNA was then subjected to O-150 LAMP and real-time PCR for the detection of infection by Onchocerca species using pool screening. The river system was analysed and the water discharge compared between rainy and dry seasons., Principal Findings: We used human landing collection method (previously called human bait) to collect 22,274 adult female Simulium flies from Mbam River System. Of this number, 9,134 were dissected while 129 pools constituted for molecular screening. Overall biting and parous rates of 1113 flies/man/day and 24.7%, respectively, were observed. All diagnostic techniques detected similar rates of O. volvulus infection (P = 0.9252) and infectivity (P = 0.4825) at all monitoring time points. Onchocerca ochengi larvae were only detected in 2 of the 129 pools. Analysis of the river drainage revealed two hydroelectric dams constructed on the tributaries of the Mbam river were the key contributing factor to the high-water discharge during both rainy and dry seasons., Conclusion: Results from fly dissection (Microscopy), real-time PCR and LAMP revealed the same trends pre- and post-MDA. The infection rate with animal Onchocerca sp was exceptionally low. The dense river system generate important breeding sites that govern the abundance of Simulium during both dry and rainy seasons., Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Background: The mass drug administration of ivermectin for onchocerciasis control has contributed to a significant drop in Loa loa microfilaria loads in humans that has, in turn, led to reduction of infection levels in Chrysops vectors. Accurate parasite detection is essential for assessing loiasis transmission as it provides a potential alternative or indirect strategy for addressing the problem of co-endemic loiasis and lymphatic filariasis through the Onchocerciasis Elimination Programme and it further reflects the true magnitude of the loiasis problem as excess human mortality has been reported to be associated with the disease. Although microscopy is the gold standard for detecting the infection, the sensitivity of this method is compromised when the intensity of infection is low. The loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay of parasite DNA is an alternative method for detecting infection which offers operational simplicity, rapidity and versatility of visual readout options. The aim of this study was to validate the Loa loa LAMP assay for the detection of infected Chrysops spp. under experimental and natural field conditions., Methods: Two sets of 18 flies were fed on volunteers with either a low (< 10 mf/ml) or high (> 30,000mf/ml) microfilarial load. The fed flies were maintained under laboratory conditions for 14 days and then analysed using LAMP for the detection of L. loa infection. In addition, a total of 9270 flies were collected from the north-west, east, and south-west regions (SW 1 and 2) of Cameroon using sweep nets and subjected to microscopy (7841 flies) and LAMP (1291 flies plus 138 nulliparous flies) analyses., Results: The LAMP assay successfully detected parasites in Chrysops fed on volunteers with both low and high microfilariaemic loads. Field validation and surveillance studies revealed LAMP-based infection rates ranging from 0.5 to 31.6%, with the lowest levels in SW 2 and the highest infection rates in SW 1. The LAMP assay detected significantly higher infection rates than microscopy in four of the five study sites., Conclusion: This study demonstrated the potential of LAMP as a simple surveillance tool. It was found to be more sensitive than microscopy for the detection of experimental and natural L. loa infections in Chrysops vectors.

Background: Prior to carrying out clinical trials, it is important to assess the health status of the study participants to be able to interpret subsequent changes that may be related to the effects of the treatments during the follow-up of patients. This study presents the clinical, haematological and biochemical profiles of podoconiosis patients prior to their involvement in the PodoLEDoxy clinical trial., Methods: All lower limb lymphoedema patients visiting the centre were screened and a podoconiosis diagnosis was based on clinical manifestation and detailed medical history. Patients who satisfied the eligibility criteria were enrolled in the study and their demographic data, vital signs and medical history were collected followed by biochemical and haematological examinations., Results: Of the 222 participants enrolled in the study, 55.4% and 41.4% had either stage 3 or 2 podoconiosis as their highest stages, respectively. On physical examination, gastritis (46%) and poor vision (2.7%) were the most prevalent health issues identified. The majority of haematological and biochemical values were within the normal range except for mean platelet volume (47.7%), plateletcrit (58.1%), platelet distribution width (66.2%), mean corpuscular volume (67.6%) and red cell distribution width-standard deviation (79.3%), where >40% of the study participants had values out of the normal., Conclusion: The clinical, haematological and biochemical profiles of the study participants were largely within the normal range except for certain haematological parameters that might be worth investigating., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene.)

Introduction: Onchocerciasis is an infection caused by Onchocerca volvulus . It affects 37 million people of which 99% are in Africa. This study assessed the prevalence of onchocerciasis after 15 years of mass drug administration with ivermectin., Methods: This was a population based cross sectional study. Questionnaires covering participants' identity and attitudes and practices of community respondents towards ivermectin were administered. The treatment coverage was obtained by review of records of mass drug administration from 1999 to 2015. The epidemiological evaluation of infection status was done by parasitological examination of skin snips and nodule palpation in individuals in five health areas of the district., Results: A total of 400 participants were randomly selected. Of these, 56.0% were males, 62.0% single, 59.5% farmers and 98.0% Christians. Participants with good attitudes towards community directed treatment with ivermectin made up 80.5% while 47.8% of the participants had good practice. The highest treatment coverage achieved was 88.0% in 2010 while lowest was 57.0% in 2002. Less than 2% had microfilaria and 6.0% had nodules. There was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence of microfilaria with respect to age. There was a statistically significant difference in the distribution of nodules (χ 2 =73.6, p=0.001) among the different age groups. The greatest rate of infection (2.1%) was among farmers., Conclusion: This study showed that the prevalence reduced compared to other prevalence studies in Cameroon. The study area was hypo-endemic for onchocerciasis., Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© Sharon Mumah Nyagang et al.)

A study was carried out with 425 children aged 0-14 yr residing in Bolifamba, Cameroon, to investigate the effect of Plasmodium falciparum malaria and intestinal helminth coinfection on anemia and to identify significant predictors of anemia in the community. Blood was collected by finger prick to determine malaria parasitemia and packed cell volume (PCV). The Kato-Katz technique was used to assess the prevalence and egg load of intestinal helminths. The prevalence of P. falciparum malaria, intestinal helminth infections, and coinfection was 64.2%, 38.3%, and 24.7%, respectively. Coinfections in which heavy helminth loads were detected had corresponding high mean P. falciparum parasite loads >5,000/microl compared with coinfections involving light helminth burden. The overall prevalence of anemia was 30.8%. Anemia prevalence increased significantly with P. falciparum parasite load >5,000/microl compared with lower densities (chi2 = 6.734, P = 0.034). Anemia prevalence was significantly higher in febrile children compared with nonfebrile children (chi2 = 6.041, P = 0.014). Children infected exclusively with P. falciparum recorded the highest prevalence of anemia compared with uninfected children, those with coinfections, and those harboring only helminths. This difference in prevalence was significant (chi2 = 6.734, P = 0.031). Multiple regression analysis exposed fever (P > 0.001) and age (P = 0.004) as significant predictors of anemia.