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Water is becoming an increasingly contested resource. Today, the sustainability of water use is assessed with different indicator frameworks that usually refer to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) or other norms. Classifying international norms and the subsequent indicators for assessment according to their legitimacy will increase the practical relevance of assessment results. The classification will enable addressees to differentiate between mandatory obligations in water management and additional more ambitious targets for decisions on sustainable water distribution. This study presents 11 standards for sustainable water distribution which have been classified based on legitimacy and specificity. A literature review identified relevant international norms that were subsequently classified. Suggestions for the implementation of the standards and priorities in assessment methods are discussed. Through the new set of standards, assessment results can transparently be communicated to policymakers, NGOs and business and support them to identify their obligations for sustainable water use. Highlights Compiled standards can be used by decision-makers for the spatial assessment of the sustainability of water use.; Classification of norms according to legitimacy and specificity points to governmental actors where further operationalization is needed to implement and monitor sustainable water use.; In competing situations, water allocation between environment and food production remains unsolved.

Compared to other countries, in Germany landscape planning was developed early and has many variations in different federal states. This has generated many experiences with different planning arrangements. Additionally, it makes Germany an interesting example for learning about the strengths and pitfalls of landscape planning under certain framework conditions. The objective of this paper is to describe the system of German landscape planning, its development and its features in the context of governance conditions. The method applied for this purpose is a literature review. An important milestone for landscape planning was its inclusion into the Federal Nature Conservation Act in 1976. Here, landscape planning was established as a precautionary planning, covering a broad range of natural assets and spatially specifying the general legal objectives of nature conservation and landscape management. It turned out to be effective for the inclusion of environmental concerns into spatial development. However, landscape planning could not halt strong driving forces such as urbanization and intensification of agriculture. The specific form and implementation options of German landscape planning can be explained by (i) a governance context with rather strong legalization and respective boundaries for public participation; (ii) by the constitutional barriers to unlimited use of private property and (iii) by a federal system with an unbalanced distribution of competencies between planning tiers. For enhancing the effectiveness of German landscape planning, recommendations are deduced, which include, for example, better access to and homogenization of the information in landscape plans. Furthermore, links between planning and implementation instruments should be strengthened.

River ecosystems are widely considered to be of high value for nature conservation. This judgment has been validated for biodiversity and regulating ecosystem services. However, little is known about the role of landscape aesthetic quality (LAQ) of river landscapes compared to other landscapes. The objective of this paper is to assess river landscape aesthetic quality (RLAQ), with an indicator-based approach, and to investigate whether river landscapes deserve special protection because of their attractiveness. We compare RLAQ with the aesthetic quality of other landscapes and explore specific indicators of RLAQ by using GIS and descriptive statistics. The results demonstrate that river courses and adjacent recent floodplains achieve higher LAQ scores than other landscapes of Germany, whereas LAQ of historical riparian zones is rated lower than in other landscapes. This is, mainly, due to the large modification of historical riparian zones. Areas with high RLAQ scores are mostly characterized by rare land cover types and, particularly, high relief diversity. In contrast, low RLAQ scores are found in agglomerations and in intensively cultivated historical riparian zones. RLAQ is an important contribution to multifunctional river landscape development as it supports the public acceptance of renaturation measures.

A better understanding of the general mechanisms influencing individual choices and of the specific rationales of politicians could help to put greater emphasis on environmental planning informatio...

Water provision and distribution are subject to conflicts between users worldwide, with agriculture as a major driver of discords. Water sensitive ecosystems and their services are often impaired by man-made water shortage. Nevertheless, they are not sufficiently included in sustainability or risk assessments and neglected when it comes to distribution of available water resources. The herein presented contribution to the Sustainable Development Goals Clean Water and Sanitation (SDG 6) and Life on Land (SDG 15) is the Ecological Sustainability Assessment of Water distribution (ESAW-tool). The ESAW-tool introduces a watershed sustainability assessment that evaluates the sustainability of the water supply-demand ratio on basin level, where domestic water use and the water requirements of ecosystems are considered as most important water users. An ecological risk assessment estimates potential impacts of agricultural depletion of renewable water resources on (ground)water-dependent ecosystems. The ESAW-tool works in standard GIS applications and is applicable in basins worldwide with a set of broadly available input data. The ESAW-tool is tested in the Danube river basin through combination of high-resolution hydro-agroecological model data (hydrological land surface process model PROMET and groundwater model OpenGeoSys) and further freely available data (water use, biodiversity and wetlands maps). Based on the results, measures for more sustainable water management can be deduced, such as increase of rainfed agriculture near vulnerable ecosystems or change of certain crops. The tool can support decision making of authorities from local to national level as well as private enterprises who want to improve the sustainability of their supply chains.

Rivers and floodplains provide many regulating, provisioning and cultural ecosystem services (ES) such as flood risk regulation, crop production or recreation. Intensive use of resources such as hydropower production, construction of detention basins and intensive agriculture substantially change ecosystems and may affect their capacity to provide ES. Legal frameworks such as the European Water Framework Directive, Bird and Habitats Directive and Floods Directive already address various uses and interests. However, management is still sectoral and often potential synergies or trade‐offs between sectors are not considered. The ES concept could support a joint and holistic evaluation of impacts and proactively suggest advantageous options. The river ecosystem service index (RESI) method evaluates the capacity of floodplains to provide ES by using a standardized five‐point scale for 1 km‐floodplain segments based on available spatial data. This scaling allows consistent scoring of all ES and their integration into a single index. The aim of this article is to assess ES impacts of different flood prevention scenarios on a 75 km section of the Danube river corridor in Germany. The RESI method was applied to evaluate scenario effects on 13 ES with the standardized five‐point scale. Synergies and trade‐offs were identified as well as ES bundles and dependencies on land use and connectivity. The ratio of actual and former floodplain has the strongest influence on the total ES provision: the higher the percentage and area of an active floodplain, the higher the sum of ES. The RESI method proved useful to support decision‐making in regional planning., Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung http://dx.doi.org/10.13039/501100002347

A high landscape aesthetic quality (LAQ) arguably is an important ecosystem service that positively affects humans’ health and well-being. It is strongly appreciated by citizens and provides the backdrop and precondition for many outdoor activities. The objective of this paper is to map and assess the LAQ of landscapes across Germany. We developed and tested a method for a spatially explicit national assessment of LAQ. The method uses landscape diversity, naturalness and uniqueness as established indicators for landscape attractiveness, and applies several landscape metrics as proxies to spatially evaluate and map each of them. The results demonstrate that the LAQ varies substantially across Germany. Areas of high LAQ are located in the German high and many low mountain ranges, in riverine landscapes, and at the German coast and islands, whereas particularly low LAQ scores are found in urban agglomerations and intensively used open agrarian landscapes. The proportional distribution of values shows that most area is covered with mediocre scores, and that areas of extremely high or low scores are rare. The results respond to the EU biodiversity strategy’s request to member states to map and assess ecosystem services, and can usefully inform national and sub-national policy-, plan-, and decision-making.

Context: Although uncertainties are ubiquitous in landscape planning, so far, no systematic understanding exists regarding how they should be assessed, appropriately communicated and what impacts they yield on decision support. With increasing interest in the role of uncertainties in science and policy, a synthesis of relevant knowledge is needed to further promote uncertainty assessment in landscape planning practice. Objectives: The aim of this paper is to synthesize knowledge about types of uncertainties in landscape planning, of methods to assess these uncertainties, and of approaches for appropriately coping with them. Methods: The paper is based on a qualitative literature review of relevant papers identified in the ISI Web of Knowledge and supplemented by frequently cited publications. The identification and synthesis of relevant information was guided by a developed framework concerning uncertainty in landscape planning. Results: The main types of uncertainties identified in landscape planning are data-, model-, projection- and evaluation uncertainty. Various methods to address these uncertainties have been identified, including statistical methods for the assessment of uncertainties in planning approaches that help to cope with uncertainties. The integration of uncertainty assessments into landscape planning results is lacking. Conclusions: The assessment of uncertainties in landscape planning have been addressed by science, but what is missing are considerations and ideas on how to use this knowledge to foster uncertainty analysis in landscape planning practice. More research is needed on how the application of identified approaches into landscape planning practice can be achieved and how these results might affect decision makers.

As demographic changes abound, landscape planners should increase their understanding of both elderly people’s preferences concerning nature-based recreation and approaches to consider those preferences in planning. This study aims to synthesize existing knowledge about elderly people’s preferences, namely, how they interact with green spaces, what landscape characteristics they prefer or dislike, and how practitioners can improve planning to better meet elderly people’s needs. A systematic literature review based on the PRISMA method was conducted, including an in-depth analysis of 44 peer-reviewed journal articles. We find that published studies focus primarily on elderly people’s recreational activities in urban parks. Across different contexts, elderly people seem to have common preferences: landscape features that are natural, aesthetic, comprehensible, and diverse, with accessible and well-maintained infrastructure and facilities. Moreover, interactions between people and nature may affect the relative importance levels of the preferences. We recommend that landscape planning practitioners consider both scientific evidence and local conditions that could affect elderly people’s preferences, and explore the degree to which design options may fulfill these preferences. Further research is needed to explore differences in preferences between urban and rural dwellers, to quantify preferences, and to enhance understanding of elderly people’s emotional ties with nature.

Nature-based recreation presents a key ecosystem service that people derive from landscapes. While numerous studies exist on the valuation of nature-based recreation for specific sites or regions, scientific knowledge gaps remain regarding the economic significance of nature-based recreation at national levels. This study aims to quantify the volume and economic significance of nature-based recreation in Germany, with a focus on leisure activities and weekend recreation. Our objective are to assess (i) motivations, time allocation and travel costs, (ii) frequencies and participation numbers, and (iii) economic significances. The research design includes a representative survey and descriptive statistics. Our results show that 81% of respondents participated in nature-based recreation within year before the survey, while the rest stated no participation. The average frequency was 63 leisure activities, 29 day-trips and seven short overnight trips. ‘Experiencing nature’ was the most frequently mentioned trip motivation. The extrapolated total participation volume in nature-based recreation amounts to 3.3 billiontrips and 16.6 billion hours. The economic significance is€ 151.3 billion, including travel costs, on-site expenses, and opportunity costs. Our study presents novel insights on the significance of NBR in Germany, and can support planning and policy making to safeguard and enhance landscape quality for recreational purposes.

With ongoing biodiversity loss in agricultural landscapes, there is an increasing demand to document how farmers preserve and enhance biodiversity on their farmland. This subject is not only of interest for conservation authorities and NGOs, food companies also look for ways to integrate biodiversity issues into their corporate activities. They want to know how their farm product suppliers contribute to biodiversity on their land. However, species counting and mapping on contracted farms seems unrealistic to these companies. Therefore, we aimed to devise simple and easy-to-use but scientifically sound parameters to assess the biodiversity value of farmlands. For this we focused on estimating the value of field margins for butterflies and typical vascular grassland plants. We identified 13 parameters that are of likely importance for the species numbers of butterflies and 14 parameters likely to be important for the species numbers of plants on field margins. These parameters were tested on a total of 70 field margins on seven farms located throughout Germany. Automatic linear modelling procedures selected six parameters as the most important variables in predicting butterfly numbers: the landscape heterogeneity of the surroundings, the time of mowing, the width and length of the margin, the grass-herb-ratio and the management of the adjacent field. For predicting plant species numbers, the automatic linear modelling procedures again selected six parameters as best predictors: the length of the margin, the presence of trees and/or shrubs, the amount of source habitats in the surroundings, the width of the margin, the nutrient availability and the landscape heterogeneity of the surroundings. The adapted final model for butterfly species numbers explained 63% of the variation. The adapted final model for typical vascular grassland plant species numbers, which excluded the margin width variable as it did not prove stable in cross-validation procedures, explained 67% of the variation in plant species numbers. Both models can be used by farmers and food companies alike to rapidly assess the present value of field margins for butterflies and plants on their (contracted) farms and to identity potential and appropriate measures to enhance biodiversity.

Although the transition to energy supply through renewables (RE) is, in general, politically accepted in Germany, its progress is slowed by conflicting interests, primarily nature conservation and protesting residents. This study aims to find ways to solve these conflicts in Germany. To this end, the researchers developed a geospatial model that calculates RE potentials and vulnerabilities of nature and humans. Both data input and some evaluation standards are variables in the model. The outcomes are compared to an estimated total energy demand in 2050. Two ambitious scenarios (“no regret” and “compromise”) show that a maximum of 4% of the German territory is available to meet the energy demand. This demand can be met using PV in urban areas and wind in rural landscapes without significantly impairing nature's and people's wellbeing. Solar parks and other potentials not considered in the model are treated as a reserve, which can be included if the energy targets are not met under the assumed scenario conditions. Such reserves also provide flexibility for co-determination in public participation.

Planning and governance at the regional scale is a promising field for the application of the ecosystem service (ES) concept. The objective of this paper is to explore the potential implications of integrating the ES concept into regional planning and governance. We focus on two pathways of influence: (i) information on ES and their values as decision-support in planning and management, ii) the ES concept as a boundary object for facilitating cross-sectoral interaction and collaboration. A case study illustrates the effects of applying the ES concept in planning processes. The usefulness of the ES concept as a boundary object was derived from focus groups with scientists and practitioners. Integrating the ES information into planning, facilitates the consideration of trade-offs and multifunctionality in decision-making. Furthermore, it helps people to recognize how individuals or societies are affected, thus, improving preconditions for public participation. Additionally, ES can serve as a mutual reference level within the valuation and monitoring systems of different environmental disciplines. Challenges are found in assessing utilized ES and differentiating benefits for public and individuals. Employing economic valuation could supplement existing planning procedures, but carries risks. There is a need for research in the field of applicable assessment methods and standardizations.

Although assessing green space provisions is essential to understand environmental justice, few studies have focused on the age perspective and the inequality in access regarding elderly people. This study aims at understanding the spatial disparity in access to urban green and blue infrastructure (UGBI), with a special focus on the elderly. An enhanced “2SFCA” approach was applied to measure the per capita UGBI area by considering different vegetation types and water elements, natural attractiveness, street network, and the many-to-many relationship between the supply and demand locations. Using a case study in Hannover, Germany, this study applied two different “assumptions” of distance thresholds (the near proximity assumption and the far proximity assumption) of UGBI. Our case study showed that in Hannover, elderly people are generally not disadvantaged in their access to UGBI compared with other age groups, but that the degree of accessibility differs between neighborhoods considered. The study also showed that access limitations can be partly compensated by increasing the mobility of the elderly so that they can reach high quality green spaces located farther away. The findings recommend key locations for allocating green spaces and improving the connection between residential areas and UGBI.

This chapter introduces approaches for developing targets and measures to enhance the visual quality and the recreation potential of landscapes. It begins by introducing recommendations for the enhancement of visual quality as the context within which all recreational activities take place. Subsequently, options for enhancing recreation potential are explored.

A range of different societal values need to be considered when evaluating ecosystem services and their changes in relation to both landscape planning and assessing specific planning proposals. These are typically expressed through legislative or preference-based frameworks, the latter involving economic or social methodologies. This chapter describes the various types of societal values and the core principles of the different legislative and preference-based frameworks, their strengths and weaknesses, and how they can be combined in the assessment of proposals.

The legal and governance context for landscape planning in countries outside the EU can differ greatly from their EU counterparts. We propose a framework for characterizing that context in order to enable readers from non-EU countries to relate their planning systems to the European baseline for landscape planning. Methodologies for the assessment of ES in landscape planning, such as presented in this book, can be applied in principle in most countries. However, their planning context often will be very different. Legal, political, economic, demographic, cultural and physical-environmental conditions define whether comprehensive environmental planning is possible at all, or whether incremental actions are the only feasible strategy. The context also influences the role of citizen participation and different spatial or political tiers at which particular planning tasks take place. The methodologies applied in any kind of landscape planning must also be adapted to the quality and availability of data, and particularly to the evaluation standards and roles of citizen preferences in different legal and political systems. We present two particular examples from advanced economy countries – Oregon in the USA and Japan. These examples illustrate the different governance contexts for environmental planning in the selected jurisdictions and their possible consequences for managing ecosystem services.

The objective of this book is to provide an introduction and overview of relevant concepts, methods and techniques for landscape planning with ecosystem services in Europe. It presents a new, ecosystem services-informed, approach to landscape planning that constitutes both a framework and toolbox for students and practitioners to address the environmental and landscape challenges of the twenty-first century. The book is structured into six parts which broadly follow the well-known Driving forces, Pressures, State, Impacts and Responses (DPSIR) framework for describing human-environment relationships. Part I introduces key theories, concepts, and methodological foundations for landscape planning and ecosystem services. Drivers and pressures instigating landscape change in Europe are discussed in Part II. Part III outlines methods for assessing states and impacts of various components of biodiversity and ecosystem services. Approaches for deriving response measures are the focus on Part IV. Part V addresses communication in landscape planning, while Part VI provides international perspectives and an outlook on the future prospects of landscape planning. This chapter also outlines the types of questions addressed in the book and discusses an example of how it might be used in landscape planning practice.

Landscapes provide a broad range of ecosystem services that are crucial for many aspects of human well-being. However, this provision is increasingly under threat from a variety of economic, social and environmental changes. Many of these are manifested in unsustainable land uses. Integrative and proactive environmental planning is needed to address these challenges and can be achieved by combining the conceptual strengths of the ecosystem services approach with the practical and implementation-orientated focus of landscape planning.

This chapter explores established theoretical and empirical work to identify possible indicators to represent landscape aesthetics capacity (LAC) in landscape planning. Throughout this chapter we argue that visual concepts from landscape perception/preferences studies (formed either on an individual or collective basis), together with experiences from implementing Landscape Character Assessments (LCA) throughout Europe, might help in developing frameworks for the assessment of Cultural Ecosystem Services (CES). When compared to provisioning or maintenance/regulating ecosystem services (ES), frameworks for the application of CES are lagging in development. Landscape aesthetics capacity is conceptualized here as delivered ES, which are central to the everyday life of people. The concepts we focus on are derived from landscape preference studies. The empirical cases explored are from LCAs in the United Kingdom (UK) and Hungary, from the Landscape Preferences Spatial Framework in Portugal, and from a formal method for mapping and assessing the visual landscape in Germany. There is also a brief overview of current methodological approaches and suggested indicators regarding the utilization of CES. Finally, the chapter emphasises the ways in which landscape aesthetics capacities can be incorporated into planning, by selecting a group of robust indicators (based on theory as well as on our case studies) that could be applied in different European countries.

This chapter summarises the main themes discussed in previous chapters of the book. In particular, it emphasizes how the assessment and enhancement of ecosystem services can be facilitated though landscape planning. The chapter also outlines possible future roles for landscape planning in Europe and how technological changes might influence how these are carried out. As a conclusion, we offer a short vignette of the activities future landscape planners might be involved in as part of their daily work.