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We sought to integrate a brief computer and counseling support intervention into the routine practices of HIV clinics and evaluate effects on patients' viral loads. The project targeted HIV patients in care whose viral loads exceeded 1000 copies/ml at the time of recruitment. Three HIV clinics initiated the intervention immediately, and three other HIV clinics delayed onset for 16 months and served as concurrent controls for evaluating outcomes. The intervention components included a brief computer-based intervention (CBI) focused on antiretroviral therapy adherence; health coaching from project counselors for participants whose viral loads did not improve after doing the CBI; and behavioral screening and palm cards with empowering messages available to all patients at intervention clinics regardless of viral load level. The analytic cohort included 982 patients at intervention clinics and 946 patients at control clinics. Viral loads were assessed at 270 days before recruitment, at time of recruitment, and +270 days later. Results indicated that both the control and intervention groups had significant reductions in viral load, ending with approximately the same viral level at +270 days. There was no evidence that the CBI or the targeted health coaching was responsible for the viral reduction in the intervention group. Results may stem partially from statistical regression to the mean in both groups. Also, clinical providers at control and intervention clinics may have taken action (e.g., conversations with patients, referrals to case managers, adherence counselors, mental health, substance use specialists) to help their patients reduce their viral loads. In conclusion, neither a brief computer-based nor targeted health coaching intervention reduced patients' viral loads beyond levels achieved with standard of care services available to patients at well-resourced HIV clinics.

In a cross- sectional survey of 1,013 African American women from rural Alabama and North Carolina, we examined the relationship of (1) organizational religiosity (i.e., religious service attendance), (2) non- organizational religiosity (e.g., reading religious materials), and (3) spirituality with these outcomes: women’s reports of their sexual behaviors and perceptions of their partners’ risk characteristics. Women with high non-organizational religiosity, compared with low, had fewer sex partners in the past 12 months (adjusted prevalence ratio (aPR): 0.58, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.42, 0.80) and were less likely to have concurrent partnerships (aPR: 0.47, 95% CI: 0.30, 0.73). Similar results were observed for spirituality, and protective but weaker associations were observed for organizational religiosity. Weak associations were observed between organizational religiosity, non- organizational religiosity, and spirituality with partners’ risk characteristics. Further exploration of how religiosity and spirituality are associated with protective sexual behaviors is needed to promote safe sex for African American women.

ObjectivesViral load and sexual risk behaviour contribute to HIV transmission risk. High HIV viral loads present greater transmission risk than transient viral ‘blips’ above an undetectable level. This paper therefore characterises sexual risk behaviour among patients with HIV in care with viral loads>1500 copies/mL and associated demographic characteristics.MethodsThis cross-sectional study was conducted at six HIV outpatient clinics in USA. The study sample comprises 1315 patients with HIV with a recent viral load >1500 copies/mL. This study sample was drawn from a larger sample of individuals with a recent viral load >1000 copies/mL who completed a computer-assisted self-interview (CASI) regarding sexual risk practices in the last 2 months. The study sample was 32% heterosexual men, 38% men who have sex with men (MSM) and 30% women.ResultsNinety per cent of the sample had their viral load assay within 60 days of the CASI. Thirty-seven per cent reported being sexually active (vaginal or anal intercourse) in the last 2 months. Most of the sexually active participants reported always using condoms (56.9%) or limiting condomless sex to seroconcordant partners (serosorting; 29.2% overall and 42.9% among MSM). Among sexually active participants who reported condomless anal or vaginal sex with an at-risk partner (14%), most had viral loads>10 000 copies/mL (62%).ConclusionsA relatively small number of patients with HIV in care with viral loads above 1500 copies/mL reported concurrent sexual transmission risk behaviours. Most of the individuals in this small group had markedly elevated viral loads, increasing the probability of transmission. Directing interventions to patients in care with high viral loads and concurrent risk behaviour could strengthen HIV prevention and reduce HIV infections.Trial registration numberNCT02044484, completed.

Heterosexual anal intercourse is associated with increased risk for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections. Research on the social and psychological risk factors associated with heterosexual unprotected anal intercourse among Hispanic women in the USA is limited. We examined demographic, mental health, relationship power, sexual self-efficacy, self-esteem, acculturation and HIV knowledge as correlates of unprotected anal intercourse among 514 HIV-negative Hispanic women, 18 to 59 years of age, residing in one urban county in southern Florida. In both unadjusted and adjusted results, the likelihood of engaging in unprotected anal intercourse was associated with food insecurity in the past 30 days (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.57, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.03, 2.40) and more interpersonal power attributed to the male partner (AOR = 1.63, 95%CI 1.08, 2.45). Not significant, yet of possible importance, were ever having engaged in exchange sex (AOR = 1.96, 95%CI = 0.97, 3.98) and lower HIV knowledge (AOR = 0.80, 95%CI = 0.63, 1.01). Interventions aimed at reducing heterosexual unprotected anal intercourse risk for HIV infection among Hispanic women may benefit by addressing socioeconomic and interpersonal issues, and assessing HIV knowledge and comprehension.

Objective: The aim of this study was to examine whether brief training of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) medical providers increased the frequency with which they routinely delivered prevention counselling to patients, and whether patient characteristics were associated with receipt of that counselling. Design: Longitudinal. Setting: Seven HIV clinics in the United States. Method: Medical providers received training to deliver counselling to their HIV-positive patients. The evaluation was conducted with a longitudinal cohort ( N = 729) of patients at baseline (before providers received training) and at six and 12 months after the intervention was initiated. Participants reported on receipt of routine counselling (at more than half of their primary care visits) about safer sex, disclosing HIV infection to sex partners, and alcohol/drug use. Logistic regression and generalized estimating equations (GEE) methods assessed changes in receipt of counselling over time. Results: The percentage of participants reporting routine safer-sex counselling increased significantly across time (b = 0.12, standard error [SE] = 0.04; p = 0.004), as did receipt of routine counselling about disclosing their HIV infection to sex partners (b = 0.21, SE = 0.05; p < 0.001). The trend was not significant for counselling about alcohol or drug use. Sub-group analysis indicated that the upward trend in routine safer-sex counselling was significant for men who have sex with men (MSM), for participants who had more than one sexual partner in the past three months, and for those who had a CD4 count of > 500cells/mm3. Conclusion: Brief training increased the frequency with which HIV medical providers routinely delivered prevention counselling to their patients at risk of transmitting HIV to others.

Current national guidelines recommend that all HIV care providers routinely counsel their HIV-infected patients about reducing HIV transmission behaviors. In this article we identify the challenges and lessons learned from implementing a provider-delivered HIV transmission risk-reduction intervention for HIV-infected patients (Positive Steps). Based on a multi-site Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) initiative, we integrated the Positive Steps program into an infectious diseases clinic in North Carolina. Of the nearly 1200 HIV-infected patients, 59% were African American, 44% were white, 33% were women, and over 50% were between 25 and 44 years of age. We obtained feedback from a community advisory board, input from clinic staff, and conducted formative interviews with clinic patients and providers to achieve overall acceptance of the program within the clinic. Clinic providers underwent training to deliver standardized prevention counseling. During program implementation we conducted a quality assessment of program components, including reviewing whether patients were screened for HIV transmission risk behaviors and whether providers counseled their patients. Once Positive Steps was implemented, on average, 69% of patients were screened and 77% of screened patients were counseled during the first 12 months. In analyses of quarterly exit surveys of patients after their medical exams, on average, 73% of respondents reported being asked about safer sex and 51% reported having safer-sex discussions with their providers across six quarterly periods. Of those who had discussions, 91% reported that those discussions were “very” or “moderately helpful.” Providers reported time and competing medical priorities as barriers for discussing prevention with patients, however, provider-delivered counseling was routinely performed for 12 months. Overall, the findings indicate that the Positive Steps program was successfully integrated in an infectious diseases clinic and received well by patients.

Objectives: This cross-sectional study examined African American and Hispanic women's (N = 1,509) self-reports of unwanted forced sex and its association with behavioral and mental health outcomes after the event. Methods: Twenty percent of the women had experienced forced sex (1st occurrence at age 15 years or younger for 10%, 1st occurrence at older than 15 years of age for 10%). Results: Regardless of when forced sex 1st occurred, women were more likely to have engaged in unprotected vaginal and anal sex, to have had multiple unprotected sex partners, to have sexually transmitted infections, to have reported binge drinking and illicit drug use, and to exhibit distress and have received mental health counseling. Conclusions: Forced sex may have wide-ranging behavioral and mental health consequences years later.

Early in the AIDS epidemic there was substantial concern over so-called casual or non-sexual transmission of HIV much of it centered on contact with saliva (sharing an eating utensil or toothbrush). Several epidemiologic studies and national AIDS case surveillance data demonstrated that the transmission of HIV depended on contact with infected body fluids primarily blood and semen. Studies of household transmission of HIV involving family members who shared commonplace activities could not demonstrate passage of the virus. As the epidemic unfolded concerns about casual contact abated and widespread major risk factors such as needle-sharing anal sexual contact and transfusion became the primary epidemiologic focus. Another realignment of emphasis may now be taking place. After about 2 decades the transmission of HIV in industrialized nations has showed some signs of amelioration. Recent surveillance data in the United States and Europe demonstrate a declining acceleration in the reporting of new incident cases of AIDS. Over the past 2 years there has been a substantial decline in AIDS deaths attributed largely to new therapeutic developments and continuing reports of declines in risk-taking. A number of continuing concerns remain however. Younger homosexual men may still be evidencing sexual behaviors that place them at risk and the burden of HIV infection in women is growing. (excerpt)

Purpose We examined sexual risk behaviors and unrecognized HIV infection among heterosexually active African-American and Hispanic women. Methods Women not previously diagnosed with HIV infection were recruited in rural counties in North Carolina (African American) and Alabama (African American), and an urban county in southern Florida (Hispanic) using multiple methods. They completed a computer-administered questionnaire and were tested for HIV infection. Results Between October 2008 and September 2009, 1,527 women (1,013 African American and 514 Hispanic) enrolled in the study. Median age was 35 years (range, 18–59), 33% were married or living as married, 50% had an annual household income of $12,000 or less, and 56% were employed full or part time. Two women (0.13%) tested positive for HIV. In the past 12 months, 19% had been diagnosed with a sexually transmitted infection (other than HIV), 87% engaged in unprotected vaginal intercourse (UVI), and 26% engaged in unprotected anal intercourse (UAI). In multivariate analysis, UAI was significantly ( p .05) more likely among those who reported ever being pregnant, binge drinking in the past 30 days, ever exchanging sex for things needed or wanted, engaging in UVI, or being of Hispanic ethnicity. UAI was also more likely to occur with partners with whom women had a current or past relationship as opposed to casual partners. Conclusion A high percentage of our sample of heterosexually active women of color had recently engaged in sexual risk behaviors, particularly UAI. More research is needed to elucidate the interpersonal dynamics that may promote this high-risk behavior. Educational messages that explicitly address the risks of heterosexual anal intercourse need to be developed for heterosexually active women and their male partners.

Few studies have examined the psychosocial factors associated with sexual transmission behaviors among HIV-positive men who have sex with men (MSM), heterosexual men (MSW) and women. We enrolled 1,050 sexually active HIV-positive patients at seven HIV clinics in six US cities as part of a clinic-based behavioral intervention. We describe the sexual transmission behaviors and examine demographic, clinical, psychosocial, and clinic prevention variables associated with unprotected anal or vaginal intercourse (UAVI). Twenty-three percent of MSM, 12.3% of MSW and 27.8% of women engaged in UAVI with partners perceived to be HIV-negative or of unknown serostatus. Among MSM and MSW, having multiple partners and lower self-efficacy were associated with increased odds of UAVI. Self-rating one’s health status as excellent/very good was a risk factor for UAVI among MSM. Among women, binge drinking and stressful life events were associated with UAVI. These findings identify variables that warrant attention in targeted interventions.

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have recommended that HIV care clinics incorporate prevention into clinical practice. This report summarizes HIV care providers' attitudes and counseling practices before and after they received training to deliver a counseling intervention to patients. Providers at seven HIV clinics received training in delivering a counseling intervention (Positive STEPs) to their patients and completed baseline and follow-up questionnaires to measure changes in prevention parameters. A cohort of patients at each clinic was independently surveyed about counseling experiences. Compared with the pretraining period, providers' self-ratings collected after they initiated the intervention showed significant (p.05) positive changes in attitudes, comfort, self-efficacy, and frequency of delivering prevention counseling. Patients reported an increase in prevention counseling received from providers after training. The findings indicate that the training and delivery of the Positive STEPs intervention was associated with positive changes in providers' attitudes and HIV prevention counseling to patients.

We conducted a demonstration project to design, implement, and evaluate a risk-reduction intervention delivered by medical providers to patients with HIV during routine care in 2005 and 2006. Medical providers at seven HIV clinics in the United States received training to deliver an intervention in which they screened patients for behavioral risks, gave targeted counseling, and delivered prevention messages. A longitudinal cohort (n = 767) of patients completed a baseline questionnaire and two follow-up questionnaires (6-month intervals) after the intervention was initiated. Logistic regression and generalized estimating equations (GEE) methods were used in analyses. The cohort had a median age of 41, was 58% black, 28% white, and 10% Hispanic; 32% were women and 42% self-identified as men who have sex with men. The 3-month prevalence of unprotected anal or vaginal intercourse (UAVI) with any partners declined significantly (p0.001) from baseline (42%) to follow-up (26% at first follow-up, 23% at second follow-up). The decline was significant with partners who were HIV-negative/unknown serostatus or HIV-positive. Cohort patients' self-reported receipt of safer-sex counseling at all, some, or no clinic visits during the interval between baseline and first follow-up showed a dose-response relationship with decline in prevalence of UAVI in that interval, with relative reductions of 45%, 35%, and 19%, respectively. All findings were confirmed in multivariate models that controlled for demographic factors and HIV clinical status of participants. This project demonstrated that with only brief training, HIV medical providers successfully conducted an HIV prevention intervention with their clinic patients. Our findings indicate that clinics that serve HIV patients can incorporate such programs as standard of care.

The present study sought to examine psychological and behavioral variables as predictors of attending an HIV medical care provider among person's recently diagnosed with HIV. The study, carried out between 2001 and 2003, was a two-arm randomized intervention trial with participants recruited from public HIV testing centers, sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinics, hospitals, and community-based organizations in Atlanta, Georgia; Baltimore, Maryland; Miami, Florida; and Los Angeles, California. Eighty-six percent of those enrolled (273) had complete baseline and 12-month follow-up data. Measures of number of months since HIV diagnosis, readiness to enter care (based on stages of change), barriers and facilitators to entering care, drug use, and intervention arm (case managed versus simple referral) were examined as predictors of attending an HIV care provider, defined as being in care at least once in each of two consecutive 6-month follow-up periods. In logistic regression, seeing a care provider was significantly more likely among participants diagnosed with HIV within 6 months of enrollment (odds ratio [OR] = 2.52, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.25, 5.06), those in the preparation versus precontemplation stages at baseline (OR = 2.87, 95% CI, 1.21, 6.81), those who reported at baseline that someone (friend, family member, social worker, other) was helping them get into care (OR = 2.13, 95% CI, 1.02, 4.44), and those who received a case manager intervention (OR = 2.16, 95% CI, 1.23, 3.78). The findings indicate a need to reach HIV-positive person's soon after diagnosis and assist them in getting into medical care. Knowing a person's stages of readiness to enter care and their support networks can help case managers formulate optimal client plans.

Background HIV prevention efforts have given limited attention to the relational schemas and scripts of adult heterosexual women. These broader schemas and scripts of romantic and other sexual liaisons, partner selection, relationship dynamics, and power negotiations may help to better understand facilitators and barriers to HIV risk-reduction practices. Methods We conducted exploratory qualitative interviews with 60 HIV-uninfected heterosexual African-American women from rural counties in North Carolina and Alabama, and Hispanic women from an urban county in southern Florida. Data were collected for relationship expectations; relationship experiences, and relationship power and decision-making. Interview transcripts underwent computer-assisted thematic analysis. Results Participants had a median age of 34 years (range 18–59), 34% were married or living as married, 39% earned an annual income of $12,000 or less, 12% held less than a high school education, and 54% were employed. Among the Hispanic women, 95% were foreign born. We identified two overarching relationship themes: contradictions between relationship expectations and desires and life circumstances that negated such ideals, and relationship challenges. Within the contradictions theme, we discovered six subthemes: a good man is hard to find; sex can be currency used to secure desired outcomes; compromises and allowances for cheating, irresponsible, and disrespectful behavior; redefining dating; sex just happens; needing relationship validation. The challenges theme centered on two subthemes: uncertainties and miscommunication, and relationship power negotiation. Gender differences in relationship intentions and desires as well as communication styles, the importance of emotional and financial support, and the potential for relationships to provide disappointment were present in all subthemes. In examining HIV risk perceptions, participants largely held that risk for HIV-infection and the need to take precautions were problems of women who differed from them (i.e., abuse drugs, are promiscuous, exchange sex). Conclusion Underlying women’s relational schemas was a belief that relationship priorities differed for men and women. Consequently, expectations and allowances for partner infidelity and negligent behaviors were incorporated into their scripts. Moreover, scripts endorsed women’s use of sex as currency in relationship formation and endurance, and did not emphasize HIV risk. Both couple- and gender-specific group-level interventions are needed to deconstruct (breakdown) and reconstruct (rewrite) relationship scripts.