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Limited information on the analgesic efficacy and safety of even clinically commonly used analgesic drugs in guinea pigs and chinchillas is available. Buprenorphine and meloxicam are currently the most common analgesics routinely used to treat painful conditions in guinea pigs and chinchillas. Hydromorphone has also shown to be an effective analgesic drug in these species, with limited adverse effects. Tramadol in chinchillas does not provide analgesia even at high doses, and no information is available on the efficacy of this drug in guinea pigs. Multimodal analgesic protocols should be considered whenever possible.

OBJECTIVE To assess the antinociceptive efficacy and safety of neuraxial morphine in inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). ANIMALS 10 healthy adult bearded dragons. PROCEDURES Animals were sedated with alfaxalone (15 mg/kg) SC prior to neuraxial injections. In a randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design, animals received preservative-free morphine (0.5 mg/kg) combined with lidocaine (2 mg/kg) or lidocaine (2 mg/kg) only (control treatment). For both treatments, saline (0.9% NaCl) solution was used for dilution to a total volume of 0.3 mL/kg. If the initial injection did not result in motor block of the pelvic limbs or cloaca relaxation within 10 minutes, a second injection was performed. Measurements consisted of bilateral mechanical stimulation of the limbs and at 25%, 50%, and 75% of the trunk’s length as well as cloacal tone to assess spread and duration of motor block. Pelvic limb withdrawal latencies in response to a thermal noxious stimulus were measured over a 48-hour period to assess antinociception. RESULTS Success rate following the first injection was 90% (18/20 injections) and increased to 100% following a second injection. Motor block occurred within 5 minutes with both treatments. Pelvic limb withdrawal latencies were significantly prolonged following neuraxial morphine versus control treatment for at least 12 hours after injection. By 24 hours, no effect of morphine on pelvic limb latencies was detectable. CLINICAL RELEVANCE These results demonstrated that neuraxial administration of morphine results in regional antinociceptive effects for at least 12 hours and has no clinically relevant adverse effects in healthy bearded dragons. This technique has potential for providing regional analgesia in this species.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate glucose absorption rates as an indirect measure of fluid absorption after SC or intracoelomic (ICe) administration of 2.5% dextrose solution to experimentally dehydrated inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). ANIMALS 9 adult bearded dragons. PROCEDURES In a randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design study, bearded dragons were experimentally dehydrated with a previously described protocol and then received 2.5% dextrose solution (a 1:1 mixture of 5% dextrose in isotonic multiple electrolytes solution; 20 mL/kg), SC or ICe, or a control treatment (the same electrolytes solution without added glucose; 20 mL/kg). Blood glucose (BG) concentrations were measured at predetermined times up to 24 hours after fluid administration. There was a ≥ 14-day washout period between treatments. Mean changes in BG concentration from baseline were compared among treatments. RESULTS Administration of 2.5% dextrose solution by either route increased BG concentration with a significantly greater change in values within 5 minutes, compared with control treatment results. The mean change in BG concentration after ICe administration was significantly greater than that after SC administration 15 and 30 minutes after injection, with mean differences of −50 and −36 mg/dL, respectively, for the SC treatment. Within 1 hour after fluid administration, there was no significant difference in BG values between the 2 dextrose administration routes. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Findings supported that fluid therapy by SC administration, which carries a lower risk of iatrogenic complications, can provide results similar to those achieved with ICe administration.

Tinidazole is a second-generation nitroimidazole compound that is used as an antimicrobial to treat anaerobic bacterial and protozoal infections in humans and, less frequently, in veterinary medicine. However, metronidazole, another secondgeneration nitroimidazole, is more commonly used. Nonetheless, tinidazole has proven to be a superior therapy for parasitic infections in humans, particularly in the treatment of giardiasis. Furthermore, in chinchillas, metronidazole has been shown to cause a clinically relevant reduction in food intake after oral administration at published dosages. This study's objective was to evaluate the effect of orally administered tinidazole on food intake in healthy chinchillas. In 2 randomized, placebocontrolled, blinded, crossover studies, tinidazole was evaluated at 2 single high doses (100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg PO, n = 9) and a repeated dosing schedule at a lower dose (20 mg/kg PO q12h for 10 doses, n = 12). Food intake was measured over 24-h periods before and after drug administration. The single-dose treatment groups both displayed significantly reduced food intake (200 mg/kg: –26 ± 21%; 100 mg/kg: –9 ± 21%, P < 0.01) as compared with the control group during the first 24 h after drug administration. Food intake returned to pretreatment values within 4-5 d. Repeated administration at 20 mg/kg q12h was not associated with any significant changes in food intake. No other adverse effects were noted during this study. Tinidazole administration at single higher doses resulted in an acute self-limiting reduction in food intake. In comparison, repeated administration of lower doses (20 mg/kg PO q12h) had no significant effects on food intake in healthy chinchillas. Therefore, tinidazole may be a more suitable drug for treating Giardia and anaerobic bacterial infections in this species than the more commonly used metronidazole.

Regional limb perfusion (RLP) has been used to treat cases of distal limb infections in avian species. Potentially nephrotoxic drugs, such as amikacin, may increase the risk of nephrotoxicity with RLP because of the presence of the renal portal system and direct venous blood flow from the pelvic limbs to the kidneys. In a randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled study, the safety of repeated amikacin administration (20 mg/kg q24h for 3 doses) via RLP was evaluated in healthy female chickens (

Background Cisapride, a prokinetic drug, has been anecdotally recommended in chinchillas at a dose of 0.5 mg/kg PO q8-12h to treat gastrointestinal hypomotility. However, studies in other rodent species suggest that higher doses are necessary to be effective. Methods In two randomized, placebo-controlled, blinded, crossover studies, the effects of cisapride (10 mg/kg PO q12h for four doses), administered with or without concurrent syringe feeding of a critical care formula (25 mL/kg PO q12h for two doses) were evaluated in chinchillas following recovery from sedation induced by alfaxalone-butorphanol. Food intake and fecal output were quantified to assess the effects of cisapride on these parameters. Results Over the first 24 hours after recovery from sedation, animals that received cisapride and syringe feeding had the least reduction in fecal output (-27 ± 23%) compared to the control treatment (-48 ± 22%, P = 0.008) or to animals which received syringe feedings alone (-40 ± 23%, P = 0.12). Cisapride administered without concurrent syringe feedings had no effect on fecal output. No adverse effects were recorded following the administration of cisapride. Conclusions and clinical relevance The oral administration of cisapride at 10 mg/kg q12h in conjunction with syringe feeding resulted in a slight, but not clinically relevant, attenuation of fecal output reduction by ~13% compared to syringe feedings alone and by ~20% compared to no treatment. Without the concurrent administration of syringe feedings, cisapride had no effect on fecal output in chinchillas.

Nannizziopsis guarroi is a highly pathogenic fungal organism affecting various lizard species which often manifests as cutaneous disease. Pulmonary involvement with Nannizziopsis infections has rarely been reported in reptiles. An 8-year-old, female green iguana was presented for clinical evaluation following a chronic history of upper and lower respiratory tract signs and fistula formation in the right maxilla communicating with the oral cavity. Pulmonary infiltrates were noted on serial computed tomography scans and repeated baseline bloodwork was unremarkable. Based on a poor response to chronic antibiotic therapy, rigid pulmonoscopy was elected. The lung parenchyma contained multifocal clusters of yellow-brown ovoid masses. Biopsy of the lesions revealed granulomas with intralesional fungal hyphae. Fungal culture had no growth but panfungal PCR identified the organism Nannizziopsis guarroi. The iguana failed to completely recover postprocedure and died despite further supportive care. Computed tomography helped determine the extent of pulmonary pathology but pulmonoscopy, lung biopsy and molecular diagnostic methods were ultimately required to obtain a definitive diagnosis. Nannizziopsis fungal pneumonia should be considered a differential diagnosis in squamates with respiratory clinical signs.

Currently, drug-induced stimulation of appetite is not commonly performed in hyporexic or anorexic companion psittacine birds. Instead, to prevent a catabolic state and weight loss, supplemental feedings are routinely performed by crop gavage. However, crop gavage is not without complications and is stressful to the patient and labor intensive. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of midazolam on food intake in healthy budgerigars. In a randomized, blinded, controlled study, change in food intake after intramuscular administration of midazolam (1 mg/kg) or a placebo-control treatment (0.9% saline) was evaluated in 12 healthy adult budgerigars (

Background Combinations of midazolam and butorphanol are commonly used in avian sedation protocols but no studies have been performed in Columbiformes. Minimizing intramuscular drug injection volumes is desirable, in order to reduce the potential for injection-induced discomfort. Reduction of drug injection volumes can be achieved by using higher concentrated drug formulations. The goals of this study were to evaluate a midazolam-butorphanol sedation protocol in domestic pigeons and to evaluate if a difference in total drug injection volume has an effect on sedation parameters in this species. Methods Twelve adult pigeons were sedated with butorphanol (2 mg/kg) combined with 4 mg/kg of midazolam as either a standard (5 mg/mL) or concentrated (50 mg/mL) formulation, intramuscularly, in a randomized, blinded, complete cross-over study. Various parameters were used to assess for differences in sedation onset, depth, and recovery. Flumazenil (0.05 mg/kg) was administered intramuscularly for reversal of midazolam 30 minutes after sedative administration. Results The sedation protocol resulted in moderate sedation and all birds became sternally recumbent, while 4of 12 birds lost righting reflex. Recovery was rapid in all birds following administration of flumazenil and no adverse reactions were observed. Significant differences in drug injection volumes had no clinically relevant effects on sedation parameters. Conclusions and clinical relevance Use of concentrated midazolam resulted in ∼3.5 times smaller total injection volumes, while achieving the same efficacy as standard concentration of midazolam. The reduced injection volumes are desirable from an animal welfare standpoint, as they may reduce the risk of local discomfort associated with intramuscular injections.

African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris) are popular zoological companion animals that routinely require chemical immobilization for veterinary care. The objective of this randomized, blinded, cross-over study was to evaluate the efficacy of low and high dosages of subcutaneous (SC) tiletamine-zolazepam for sedation and the efficacy of flumazenil for recovery in African pygmy hedgehogs. Twelve adult hedgehogs (7 males, 5 females) were administered tiletamine-zolazepam at 10 mg/kg (T10) or 30 mg/kg (T30) SC. Physiologic variables, reflexes and behaviors were monitored to evaluate quality of immobilization. Forty-five minutes after tiletamine-zolazepam injection, hedgehogs were administered flumazenil or an equivalent volume of saline SC. Baseline daily food intake was measured and then recorded daily for 6 days following sedation trials. Median (interquartile range [IQR]) time to onset of first effects for T10 and T30 was 2.9 minutes (2.5–5.3 minutes) and 2 minutes (1.4–2.9 minutes), respectively. Eighty-three percent of T10 and 100% of T30 hedgehogs lost righting reflex. The median (IQR) duration righting reflex was lost for T10 was 32.5 minutes (23.8–37.5 minutes) and it was lost for 47.5 minutes (36.25–63.75 minutes) for T30. Jaw tone was reduced in the majority of animals for both dosages but never lost. Heart and respiratory rate for both treatments remained within normal limits. Hedgehogs became rapidly hypothermic after induction. Flumazenil administration did not have a statistically significant effect on recovery time, but mean recovery times were 18 minutes faster for T10 hedgehogs administered flumazenil. There were no statistically significant differences in food intake within or between dosages of tiletamine-zolazepam at any time point for hedgehogs administered saline or flumazenil; however, mean food intake over the 6 days following T10 administration was 16 g/kg more for hedgehogs administered flumazenil. SC tiletamine-zolazepam at 10 and 30 mg/kg produces dose-dependent heavy sedation to light anesthesia in hedgehogs. Subjectively, while both dosages provided a sufficient depth of immobilization to permit a physical examination and noninvasive procedures like blood collection or diagnostic imaging, some jaw tone was maintained precluding endotracheal intubation. T30 provided a deeper level of immobilization than T10 but longer recovery times. Flumazenil administration did not have a statistically significant effect on recovery but recovery times were noticeably faster following SC flumazenil in hedgehogs sedated with T10. For hedgehogs immobilized with T10, mean food intake was greater when flumazenil was administered. Tiletamine-zolazepam provides an injectable option for immobilization of hedgehogs.

Background The administration of metronidazole in chinchillas remains controversial and some sources raise concerns regarding drug-induced anorexia or hyporexia. Therefore, the objective of this study was to evaluate if the oral administration of oral metronidazole has a significant effect on food intake in clinically healthy chinchillas, and if drug-induced reduction of food intake differs between metronidazole and metronidazole benzoate as well as between different concentrations of metronidazole benzoate suspensions. Methods In a series of randomized, blinded, crossover experiments, the effects of oral administration of metronidaole at 20 mg/kg was evaluated following q12h (for 3 days, n = 12) or q24h (for 5 days, n = 9) dosing using two different drug compounding protocols. Results Following administration of metronidazole, food intake was significantly reduced within 24 hours of drug administration, regardless of drug formulation type, compounding protocol, or drug concentration. Variation in metronidazole-induced food intake reduction differed widely between individual chinchillas, with a reduction of >50% of food intake reported in 50% of the animals following q12h administration, and 33% of animals after q24h administration of metronidazole. The reduction in food intake was self-limiting and return to normal food intake occurred after discontinuation of metronidazole administration. Neurological adverse effects were observed in one animal following q12h administration. Conclusions and clinical relevance The oral administration of metronidazole and metronidazole benzoate at published dosages can result in a marked reduction in food intake, and therefore, this drug should be used cautiously in chinchillas and food intake carefully monitored.

OBJECTIVE To determine whether plasma uric acid concentration in inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps) was affected by recent ingestion of a meal of crickets. ANIMALS 12 healthy adult inland bearded dragons. PROCEDURES Food was withheld for 48 hours prior to experiments. Animals (6/group) were randomly assigned to receive a meal of crickets (equivalent to 1% of the animal's body weight; 10 g/kg [4.5 g/lb]; treatment group) or have food withheld for an additional 48 hours (control group). Blood samples were collected for plasma uric acid measurement just before (time 0) and 4, 24, and 48 hours after feeding. Effects of feeding and time on the targeted measurement were assessed by repeated-measures ANOVA. RESULTS Mean plasma uric acid concentration for the treatment group was significantly increased from the time 0 value (2.5 ± 1.5 mg/dL) 24 hours following meal ingestion (6.5 ± 1.2 mg/dL), but not at the 4-hour time point, and returned to the time 0 value by the 48-hour time point. No significant changes in plasma uric acid concentration were detected for the control group. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results suggested food should be withheld for ≥ 48 hours prior to blood collection if inland bearded dragons are used to establish reference intervals for plasma uric acid concentration or if feasible when obtaining samples from these animals for clinical evaluation. Veterinarians should consider the time from last meal consumption when interpreting plasma uric acid concentration for this species and potentially other terrestrial insectivorous and omnivorous lizards.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the sedative effects of IM administration of a high or low dose of dexmedetomidine in combination with midazolam in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). ANIMALS 20 healthy adult budgerigars. PROCEDURES In a prospective, randomized, blinded study, birds were sedated with a high dose (HD; 0.04 mg/kg, IM; n = 10) or low dose (LD; 0.01 mg/kg, IM; 10) of dexmedetomidine in combination with midazolam (3 mg/kg, IM). Twenty minutes later, atipamezole (0.4 mg/kg [HD group] or 0.1 mg/kg [LD group], IM) and flumazenil (0.1 mg/kg, IM) were administered for reversal of sedation. RESULTS Times to first effect and to sternal recumbency after administration of the sedatives and times to standing and eating after administration of the antagonists did not differ between groups. Most birds (9/10 in the HD group and 7/10 in the LD group) lost the righting response by 10 minutes after sedative administration, and the peak effect for radiographic positioning was by 15 minutes. Although it was not clinically relevant, most birds showed mild resedation by 60 minutes after administration of the reversal agents. There was no significant cardiorespiratory compromise detected with either protocol. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Dexmedetomidine-midazolam can safely and effectively provide a dose-dependent level of sedation in healthy budgerigars. The HD protocol is recommended for radiographic positioning, as it allows for a more reliable, deeper plane of sedation.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate SC administration of 2 sedation protocols, ketamine-midazolam (KM) and alfaxalone-midazolam (AM), in African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris). ANIMALS 9 healthy adult hedgehogs (5 males, 4 females). PROCEDURES A randomized, blinded, complete crossover study was performed. Sedation was induced by SC administration of either ketamine (30 mg/kg [14 mg/lb]) with midazolam (1 mg/kg [0.45 mg/lb]) or alfaxalone (3 mg/kg [1.4 mg/lb]) with midazolam (1 mg/kg), including a 2-week washout period between treatments. Flumazenil (0.05 mg/kg [0.02 mg/lb], SC) was administered 45 minutes after administration of either protocol to reverse the effects of midazolam. Physiologic variables, reflexes, and behaviors were monitored. Food intake and body weight were measured before and after sedation. RESULTS Deep sedation characterized by complete loss of the righting reflex, decreased jaw tone, decreased pelvic limb withdrawal reflex, and preservation of the palpebral reflex was produced in 7 of 9 hedgehogs after KM administration and all 9 hedgehogs after AM administration. Mean ± SD time to loss of righting reflex was 6.4 ± 2.4 minutes after KM administration and 10 ± 4.0 minutes after AM administration. Following flumazenil administration, no significant difference was found in recovery time between sedation with KM (18.8 ± 12.7 minutes) and AM (14.4 ± 7.8 minutes). No significant differences were found in respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, or body temperature between protocols, whereas heart rate was higher for sedation with KM. Both sedation protocols resulted in a transient reduction in food intake. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Subcutaneous administration of KM and AM provided deep sedation that might be useful to facilitate routine, noninvasive procedures in hedgehogs.

Background Chinchillas, being small mammals, are subject to many of the urinary disorders that affect other companion animals. In cats and dogs, relationships between renal length and the presence of renal pathology have been well documented through the use of diagnostic imaging. Radiography and computed tomography (CT) are two commonly utilized diagnostic imaging modalities for assessing renal pathology. Presently, there are no published data on chinchilla kidney size and appearance using radiography or CT. This study aimed to determine healthy adult chinchilla renal size and correlate renal size to L2 body length and aortic diameter by use of radiography and CT. Methods Twenty-eight healthy adult chinchillas with no clinical evidence of renal disease were placed under sedation for acquisition of radiographs and CT imaging. Both kidneys were measured on the radiographic views (right lateral, left lateral and ventrodorsal), when identifiable. Renal length, L2 body length and abdominal aortic diameter were measured on CT multiplanar reformatted images in specified planes and windows. Results In 25% (7/28) of chinchillas, the renal length of either kidney could not be obtained on any of the three radiographic views due to superimposition of fluid and ingesta within the alimentary tract. Both the right and left kidney were identified on CT images in 100% of chinchillas (28/28). The left renal and right renal 95% confidence intervals from the dorsal plane CT images were 2.26 – 2.33 cm and 2.31 – 2.39 cm, respectively. No correlation was found between kidney length, L2 body length and diameter of the abdominal aorta on CT images. Conclusions Based on dorsal plane CT imaging, normal chinchilla renal length is proposed to be between 2.25–2.4 cm. Clinical Relevance Radiographic evaluation of chinchilla renal length is greatly limited due to their large fluid- and ingesta-filled colon and cecum, as is typical of animals that are hindgut fermenters. Through establishment of a normal CT reference interval for renal length and the ever-increasing clinical utility of CT, clinicians can better evaluate chinchilla renal length and identify alterations that may indicate pathologic processes.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate antinociceptive efficacy and safety of SC buprenorphine hydrochloride administration in African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris). ANIMALS 12 healthy adult hedgehogs (7 males and 5 females). PROCEDURES 3 crossover experimental trials were performed. In the first trial, all 12 hedgehogs were given single SC injections of buprenorphine (0.01 mg/kg [0.0045 mg/lb]), buprenorphine (0.03 mg/kg [0.014 mg/lb]), or saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (0.16 mL/kg [0.073 mL/lb]), and sedation and hind limb thermal withdrawal latency were measured. In the second trial, 6 hedgehogs were given single SC injections of buprenorphine (0.05 mg/kg [0.023 mg/lb]) or saline solution (0.16 mL/kg), and sedation and withdrawal latency were evaluated. In the third trial, 10 hedgehogs were given 3 doses of buprenorphine (0.05 mg/kg, SC, q 24 h) or saline solution (0.16 mL/kg, SC, q 24 h), and food intake and body weight were measured for 6 days. RESULTS For all 3 experimental trials, the sedation score was 0 for all hedgehogs at all assessment times. A single 0.01-mg/kg dose of buprenorphine significantly increased thermal withdrawal latency for 36 hours, and single 0.03- and 0.05-mg/kg doses significantly increased latencies for 48 hours. Increased locomotor activity was noted in a few hedgehogs after administration of the 0.03- and 0.05-mg/kg doses. Daily administration of buprenorphine did not have significant effects on food intake or body weight. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE SC administration of buprenorphine at single doses of 0.01, 0.03, and 0.05 mg/kg provided safe, long-lasting antinociception in African pygmy hedgehogs without apparent sedative effects.

Development of gingival enlargement and periodontitis is described in a young dwarf mongoose. Repeated treatments resulted in gingival resection and histologic evaluation however gingival enlargement was ultimately responsive to extraction of associated teeth. In cases such as these, surgical extraction of teeth associated with severe recurrent gingival enlargement should be considered to avoid the stress and risk of repeated immobilizations.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate the effects of 3 electrolyte solutions administered SC to experimentally dehydrated inland bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). ANIMALS 9 inland bearded dragons. PROCEDURES In a randomized, complete crossover study, experimental dehydration was induced by means of furosemide (10 mg/kg, SC, q 12 h for 4 doses), and then lactated Ringer solution, Plasma-Lyte A, or reptile Ringer solution (RRS; 1:1 mixture of 5% dextrose solution and isotonic crystalloid solution) was administered SC in a single 50-mL/kg dose in 3 treatments sessions separated by a minimum of 14 days. Food and water were withheld during treatment sessions. Plasma biochemical values, PCV, blood total solids and lactate concentrations, and plasma osmolarity were measured prior to (baseline) and 4 and 24 hours after fluid administration. RESULTS Administration of RRS resulted in severe hyperglycemia (mean ± SD plasma glucose concentration, 420 ± 62 mg/dL), compared with baseline values (190 ± 32 mg/dL), and this hyperglycemia persisted for at least 24 hours. It also resulted in significant reductions in plasma osmolarity and sodium and phosphorus concentrations, which were not observed after administration of the other 2 solutions. Administration of lactated Ringer solution caused no significant increase in blood lactate concentration. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE The changes in plasma glucose, sodium, and phosphorus concentrations and plasma osmolarity observed after SC administration of a single dose of RRS suggested this type of electrolyte solution should not be used for rehydration of bearded dragons. Rather, lactated Ringer solution or Plasma-Lyte A should be considered instead.

Chinchillas have been used mostly as fur animals and as animal models for human ontological diseases and only recently have been recognized as excellent, long-lived, and robust pet rodents. This review aims to provide updated information on emerging disease conditions in pet chinchillas, such as Streptococcus equi subsp zooepidemicus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Furthermore, this review article provides updated information on previously documented disorders, such as urolithiasis and middle ear disease, in chinchillas. This article is intended to serve as a complement to the current veterinary reference literature and to provide valuable and clinically relevant information for veterinarians treating chinchillas.

OBJECTIVE To evaluate SC administration of alfaxalone-midazolam and dexmedetomidine-midazolam for sedation of ball pythons (Python regius). ANIMALS 12 healthy juvenile ball pythons. PROCEDURES In a randomized crossover study, each snake was administered a combination of alfaxalone (5 mg/kg [2.3 mg/lb]) and midazolam (0.5 mg/kg [0.23 mg/lb]) and a combination of dexmedetomidine (0.05 mg/kg [0.023 mg/lb]) and midazolam (0.5 mg/kg), SC, with a washout period of at least 7 days between protocols. Respiratory and heart rates and various reflexes and behaviors were assessed and compared between protocols. Forty-five minutes after protocol administration, sedation was reversed by SC administration of flumazenil (0.05 mg/kg) alone or in combination with atipamezole (0.5 mg/kg; dexmedetomidine-midazolam protocol only). Because of difficulties with visual assessment of respiratory effort after sedative administration, the experiment was repeated for a subset of 3 ball pythons, with plethysmography used to assess respiration. RESULTS Both protocols induced a similar level of moderate sedation with no adverse effects aside from transient apnea. Cardiopulmonary depression was more profound, but time to recovery after reversal was significantly shorter, for the dexmedetomidine-midazolam protocol than for the alfaxalone-midazolam protocol. Plethysmographic findings were consistent with visual observations and suggested that snakes compensated for a decrease in respiratory rate by increasing tidal volume amplitude. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Results indicated that both protocols induced clinically relevant sedation in ball pythons and should be useful for minor procedures such as venipuncture and diagnostic imaging. However, caution should be used when sedating snakes with compromised cardiopulmonary function. (J Am Vet Med Assoc 2020;256:573-579

Background: Lead intoxication is common in companion birds and frequently associated clinical signs include weakness, regurgitation, and central nervous system signs including seizures and tremors. Motor neuropathies and conduction disturbances are more commonly described in humans with lead intoxication, but are uncommon sequelae in psittacine birds. Case Description: Three pet psittacine birds were presented for acute-onset of distal pelvic limb abnormalities. Clinical Findings: An adult, female peach-faced lovebird (Agapornis roseicollis) was presented with acute, bilateral, distal pelvic limb paralysis and an adult, male peach-faced lovebird was presented with an acute inability to extend the digits of the feet bilaterally. An adult blue-streaked lorikeet (Eos reticulata) was presented for acute onset, bilateral pelvic limb weakness, and inability to rise from the bottom of the cage. All three birds had increased blood lead levels (30–110 μg/dL), but none exhibited overt central nervous, gastrointestinal, or other common clinical signs consistent with lead intoxication in birds. A potential source of lead could not be identified in two of the three cases. Conclusion and Case Relevance: Despite achieving persistent reduction of blood lead levels following parenteral chelation therapy using calcium disodium EDTA, all three birds had continued neurological deficits in both pelvic limbs. Birds were considered to maintain a good quality of life after husbandry changes were implemented to assist in ambulation. Lead intoxication should be considered a differential for acute-onset paralysis of the distal pelvic limbs in psittacine birds.

Background: African pygmy hedgehogs (Atelerix albiventris) are popular companion animals that require chemical immobilization to facilitate examination. The objective of this study was to evaluate effects of isoflurane anesthetic duration on recovery time, food intake, and body weight following anesthesia in African pygmy hedgehogs. Methods: Eight healthy, adult hedgehogs (4 male, 4 female) were used in this randomized, blinded, complete cross-over study. Two different isoflurane anesthetic durations of 15 minutes (ISO15) and 45 minutes (ISO45) were evaluated with a 2-week wash-out period between treatments. Physiologic parameters, reflexes, and behaviors were monitored to assess anesthesia quality. Food intake (grams of food per kg of body weight) and body weight were measured both before and after anesthesia to assess postsedation effects. Result: There was no statistically significant difference in body weight between or within treatments following the anesthetic events. A decrease in postanesthetic food intake from baseline values was noted with both treatments (ISO15: −16% [−40% to 167%]); (ISO45: −13% [−38% to 43%]), but these fluctuations were not statistically significant between or within treatments. The total amount of food consumed per hedgehog over the 6 days following anesthesia was 99 ± 23 g/kg (ISO15) and 108 ± 28 g/kg (ISO45, P = 0.15). Conclusions and clinical relevance: Differences in duration of isoflurane anesthesia of either 15 or 45 minutes does not have a clinically relevant effect on recovery time or postanesthetic food intake in hedgehogs.

The field of lizard sedation, anesthesia, and locoregional anesthesia is advancing with new drug protocols being evaluated, and new locoregional techniques being developed and evaluated. Inducing and maintaining effective and safe chemical restraint in lizards can be challenging, particularly in systemically diseased individuals. Understanding the anatomic and physiologic adaptations of lizards, using reversible or partially reversible injectable protocols, and using locoregional anesthesia may increase the quality of chemical restraint, facilitate faster recoveries, and limit anesthesia-related morbidity and mortality.

Published data are sparse regarding the recognition of clinically relevant pain and appropriate analgesia in amphibians. The amphibian analgesia literature has primarily focused on nociceptive pathways in a single species, the northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens). The objective of the current study was to assess the analgesic efficacy and safety of oral tramadol and subcutaneous morphine in a commonly maintained zoo and pet species, White's tree frog (Litoria caerulea). We hypothesized that tramadol and morphine would provide dose-dependent antinociception, as measured by significant increases in hindlimb withdrawal latency after exposure to a noxious thermal stimulus. Two randomized, placebo-controlled, complete crossover studies were performed, with tramadol (n = 12) administered at 15, 25, and 40 mg/kg PO and morphine (n = 12) administered at 5 and 10 mg/kg SC. Hindlimb withdrawal latency was measured for a maximum of 72 h. No adverse side effects or signs of sedation were observed with any dose or drug evaluated. No significant difference in withdrawal latency was detected between the control and either tramadol or morphine. These negative results were surprising, suggesting that the thermal nociceptive model may not be biologically relevant in amphibian species.

To evaluate glucose absorption rates as an indirect measure of fluid absorption after SC or intracoelomic (ICe) administration of 2.5% dextrose solution to experimentally dehydrated inland bearded dragons (9 adult bearded dragons.In a randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled, crossover design study, bearded dragons were experimentally dehydrated with a previously described protocol and then received 2.5% dextrose solution (a 1:1 mixture of 5% dextrose in isotonic multiple electrolytes solution; 20 mL/kg), SC or ICe, or a control treatment (the same electrolytes solution without added glucose; 20 mL/kg). Blood glucose (BG) concentrations were measured at predetermined times up to 24 hours after fluid administration. There was a ≥ 14-day washout period between treatments. Mean changes in BG concentration from baseline were compared among treatments.Administration of 2.5% dextrose solution by either route increased BG concentration with a significantly greater change in values within 5 minutes, compared with control treatment results. The mean change in BG concentration after ICe administration was significantly greater than that after SC administration 15 and 30 minutes after injection, with mean differences of -50 and -36 mg/dL, respectively, for the SC treatment. Within 1 hour after fluid administration, there was no significant difference in BG values between the 2 dextrose administration routes.Findings supported that fluid therapy by SC administration, which carries a lower risk of iatrogenic complications, can provide results similar to those achieved with ICe administration.

The use of procedural sedation in birds has become a routine practice in veterinary medicine during the past 10 years, with a corresponding increase in avian sedation research. Sedation is most often used in a clinical setting for birds to facilitate examination and/or diagnostic sample collection, splint application, grooming, and minor surgical procedures. Sedation provides several benefits over manual restraint or general anesthesia when performing clinical procedures. This review provides an overview of current studies on avian sedation and discusses common indications, protocols, and adverse effects of sedation in avian patients.

In biomedical research, rabbits are commonly sedated to facilitate a variety of procedures. Developing a sedation assessment scale enables standardization of levels of sedation and comparisons of sedation protocols, and may help in predicting sedation level requirements for different procedures. The goal of this study was to develop a rabbit sedation assessment scale using a psychometric approach. We hypothesized that the sedation scale would have construct validity, good internal consistency, and reliability. In a prospective, randomized, blinded study design, 15 (8 females, 7 males) healthy 1-y-old New Zealand white rabbits received 3 intramuscular treatments: midazolam (0.5 mg/kg; n = 6); midazolam (1.5 mg/kg)–ketamine (5 mg/kg; n = 7); and alfaxalone (4 mg/kg)–dexmedetomidine (0.1 mg/kg)–midazolam (0.2 mg/kg; n = 3). One rabbit received 2 treatments. A sedation scale was developed by using psychometric methods, with assessment performed by 6 independent raters who were blind to treatment. Final sedation scale items included posture, palpebral reflex, orbital tightening, lateral recumbency, loss of righting reflex, supraglottic airway device placement, toe pinch, and general appearance. The scale showed construct validity, good to very good interrater reliability for individual items (6 raters; intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.671 to 0.940), very good intrarater reliability (5 raters; intraclass correlation coefficient, 0.951 to 0.987), and excellent internal consistency (Cronbach α, 0.947). The sedation scale performed well under the conditions tested, suggesting that it can be applied in a wider range of settings (different populations, raters, sedation protocols).

Tinidazole is a second-generation nitroimidazole compound that is used as an antimicrobial to treat anaerobic bacterial and protozoal infections in humans and, less frequently, in veterinary medicine. However, metronidazole, another second-generation nitroimidazole, is more commonly used. Nonetheless, tinidazole has proven to be a superior therapy for parasitic infections in humans, particularly in the treatment of giardiasis. Furthermore, in chinchillas, metronidazole has been shown to cause a clinically relevant reduction in food intake after oral administration at published dosages. This study’s objective was to evaluate the effect of orally administered tinidazole on food intake in healthy chinchillas. In 2 randomized, placebo-controlled, blinded, crossover studies, tinidazole was evaluated at 2 single high doses (100 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg PO, n = 9) and a repeated dosing schedule at a lower dose (20 mg/kg PO q12h for 10 doses, n = 12). Food intake was measured over 24-h periods before and after drug administration. The single-dose treatment groups both displayed significantly reduced food intake (200 mg/kg: −26 ± 21%; 100 mg/kg: −9 ± 21%, P ` 0.01) as compared with the control group during the first 24 h after drug administration. Food intake returned to pretreatment values within 4-5 d. Repeated administration at 20 mg/kg q12h was not associated with any significant changes in food intake. No other adverse effects were noted during this study. Tinidazole administration at single higher doses resulted in an acute self-limiting reduction in food intake. In comparison, repeated administration of lower doses (20 mg/kg PO q12h) had no significant effects on food intake in healthy chinchillas. Therefore, tinidazole may be a more suitable drug for treating Giardia and anaerobic bacterial infections in this species than the more commonly used metronidazole.

Amlodipine is a calcium channel blocker shown to be effective in lowering blood pressure with minimal adverse effects in mammals. To provide a retrospective evaluation of amlodipine use in psittacine birds, medical records were reviewed for all avian patients prescribed amlodipine for treatment for the presumptive diagnosis of hypertension, based on clinical signs and indirect blood pressure measurements. Five birds were treated with amlodipine between 2010 and 2018. The median age was 33 years (range, 22–37 years) and 3/5 birds presented for ataxia or seizures. The median indirect systolic blood pressure at diagnosis was 243 mm Hg (range, 200–275 mm Hg). In 3/5 birds, amlodipine was the only drug prescribed, whereas, in 2/5 birds, enalapril was also prescribed in addition to amlodipine. In addition to the prescription of enalapril, blood pressure measurements were obtained indirectly, which are variables to be considered in this report. The initial median dose of amlodipine prescribed was 0.4 mg/kg (range, 0.1–0.4 mg/kg) PO q24h. In 3/5 birds, amlodipine administration was increased either in dose or frequency. Median follow-up time was 25 months (range, 2–55 months) after the initiation of amlodipine treatment. Owners in all 5 cases reported improvement of clinical signs by a median time of 2 months (range, 1–15 months). Three of 5 birds (60%) demonstrated a decreasing trend in blood pressure during the first 6 months after treatment with amlodipine was started (average, ≥20% decrease). Prospective, controlled studies are needed to investigate the efficacy of amlodipine in psittacine birds.

Frogs are popular exotic pets and research subjects. Manual restraint is routinely used for basic procedures in frogs, including examination and sample collection, but there is little information on its physiologic effects in amphibians. Previous literature suggested that amphibians lack emotional responses and, therefore, consciousness, based upon an inability to elicit stress tachycardia with gentle handling. To determine if manual restraint results in a stress tachycardia in frogs, 10 poison dart frogs (Dendrobates tinctorius) and 8 leopard frogs (Lithobates pipiens) were manually restrained and heart rate (HR) recorded at both the pectoral girdle and pelvic patch using a Doppler flow probe. Frogs were randomly placed in one of two (opaque versus translucent) types of plastic containers for 22 min and HR measured every 2 min through the bottom of the container using the frogs' pelvic patch area. Frogs were then removed from the container, manually restrained again, and HR recorded. Heart rate decreased significantly after the frogs were placed in the containers following manual restraint, and increased significantly for the second restraint period. There were no significant differences in measured HR between anatomic sites (pelvic vs. pectoral) or container types. Contrary to previous descriptions, these results demonstrated that, similar to other mammal and reptile species, frogs demonstrated stress tachycardia during manual restraint, and, therefore, clinicians and researchers should be mindful of induced stress when restraining amphibians.

A 5-year-old castrated male sugar glider (Petaurus breviceps) was referred for a 2-week history of a left fluctuant pericloacal swelling and intermittent stranguria. Ultrasound of the abdomen and pericloacal area suggested a herniation of the urinary bladder with cystolithiasis. Upon surgical exploration, the bladder was normal, and a paracloacal cyst originating from the left cloacal wall was identified. Removal of the paracloacal cyst and subsequent histopathologic evaluation confirmed a cloacal wall cyst. Recovery from surgery was uneventful and long-term follow-up revealed no complications or recurrence. This is the first reported case of a paracloacal cyst in a sugar glider. Paracloacal cyst should be considered as a differential when presented with a pericloacal mass or swelling in a sugar glider.

Objective To assess the feasibility, success rate, onset, duration and extent of motor/sensory block following intrathecal injection of lidocaine in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). Study design Prospective experimental study. Animals A group of eight adult bearded dragons (0.333 ± 0.048 kg). Methods The animals were sedated with alfaxalone (15 mg kg−1) subcutaneously. Neuraxial injections were performed with 1% lidocaine (2 mg kg−1) or 0.9% sodium chloride (0.2 mL kg−1) in all animals with a 7 day interval. If the initial injection did not result in motor block of the pelvic limbs within 10 minutes, a second injection was performed at the same dose. Measurements consisted of bilateral mechanical stimulation of limbs; 25%, 50%, and 75% of the trunk’s length; and cloacal tone. Animals were monitored for any untoward side effects by monitoring heart rate (HR), respiratory rate, righting reflex and head position. Results Success rate following the first injection of lidocaine was 50% (four out of eight animals) and increased to 75% (six out of eight animals) following a second injection. Onset of motor/sensory block occurred within 5 minutes in all successful injections. Duration and extent were variable, with most bearded dragons presenting motor/sensory block of cloaca and pelvic limbs (six out of six) and 25% of the trunk (five out of six) with mean ± standard deviation (range) duration of 49 ± 28 (25–100), 48 ± 25 (25–90) and 40 ± 14 (25–50) minutes, respectively. Confirmation of intrathecal injection by aspiration of cerebrospinal fluid was not possible. Neuraxial lidocaine significantly increased depth and duration of sedation, with a transient increase in HR, compared with saline. Conclusion and clinical relevance Neuraxial lidocaine is a feasible technique with moderate success rate and low risk of complication in bearded dragons. This technique has potential for improving the management of anesthesia in this species.

A 5-month-old female chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) was evaluated for failure to thrive, difficulty drinking, and respiratory signs. Physical examination demonstrated a thin body condition score, purulent nasal and ocular discharge, and an abnormal facial appearance. Endoscope-guided oral examination and computed tomography (CT) scan demonstrated a cleft soft palate, absent nasal turbinates, and bilateral otitis media. The animal was euthanized and necropsy confirmed the diagnosis of palatoschisis (cleft palate) of the soft palate. Other relevant postmortem findings included otitis media, interna, and externa, bony bullae proliferative changes, absent nasal turbinates and rhinosinusitis. Congenital abnormalities are rarely reported in chinchillas. While cleft palates have been reported in many other domestic animals, there are no published reports of this condition in chinchillas to the best of the authors’ knowledge.

Tramadol has been demonstrated to provide analgesia in rats and mice and has been increasingly used in other small companion mammals for treatment of moderate to severe pain. Currently no evidence is available that supports the use of tramadol as an effective analgesic in chinchillas. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the antinociceptive efficacy and safety of subcutaneously administered tramadol in chinchillas. Initial dose-escalation studies were performed to determine if dose-dependent adverse effects occur in chinchillas. At 60 mg/kg subcutaneously (SC), but not at lower doses, tramadol induced clinically significant dose-limiting adverse effects, consisting of whole body tremors and facial muscle fasciculation. Therefore, in a subsequent analgesimetry experiment, tramadol was evaluated at a single dose of 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg SC in a randomized, blinded, controlled, complete crossover design. Thermal antinociceptive efficacy was determined by measuring hindlimb withdrawal latencies following a thermal noxious stimulus (Hargreaves’ method) at 0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 hours after drug administration. Changes in daily food intake and fecal output following tramadol administration were measured. At 10 to 40 mg/kg SC no thermal antinociceptive effects could be demonstrated. A self-limiting and transient significant reduction in food intake and fecal output occurred in a dose-dependent manner when tramadol was administered at 20 and 40 mg/kg. Based on the results of this study tramadol cannot be recommended as an analgesic drug in chinchillas.

OBJECTIVE To compare sedation in cockatiels (Nymphicus hollandicus) after intranasal administration of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol. ANIMALS 9 healthy adult cockatiels. PROCEDURES A randomized, controlled, blinded, complete crossover study was conducted. Birds were assigned to 3 treatment groups. Midazolam (3 mg/kg), midazolam-butorphanol (3 mg/kg for each drug), or sterile saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (control treatment) was administered intranasally. Sedation quality was assessed at 3 time points by use of eye and body position; response to visual, auditory, and tactile stimulation; and response during manual restraint on the basis of eye position and struggling intensity. To evaluate attenuation of the manual restraint–induced stress response, heart rate, respiratory rate, and cloacal temperature were measured over a 15-minute period. Treatments were repeated after a minimum washout period of 7 days. RESULTS Median onset of first sedation effects was 85 seconds (range, 60 to 120 seconds) for midazolam and 90 seconds (range, 45 to 180 seconds) for midazolam-butorphanol. Midazolam-butorphanol resulted in significantly less vigorous struggling during restraint than did midazolam or the control treatment. Heart rate did not differ significantly among treatments. The stress-induced increase in respiratory rate was significantly attenuated by midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol, whereas the increase in cloacal temperature was not attenuated by midazolam or midazolam-butorphanol. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Intranasal administration of midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol resulted in a rapid onset of sedation in cockatiels. Midazolam-butorphanol resulted in deeper sedation in both restrained and unrestrained birds than did midazolam alone. Midazolam and midazolam-butorphanol both provided safe and effective sedation in cockatiels.