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Having dealt with Martini's understanding of causality and his procedural elements of evidence in the third part, the concluding article once again takes a historical perspective. It (1) traces the positionings and contexts of Martini's methodology in a sort of historical longitudinal section and (2) discusses the reasons for the rather reluctant response to his research programme in German and international medicine. We then focus (3) on Martini's understanding and concept of clinical research, the specific challenges he faced in post-war German medicine - and what remains of it today. Finally, we summarise the key findings of our article series and reflect on Martini's work in terms of its special nature and significance for clinical medicine in the 20 th century., (Copyright © 2024. Published by Elsevier GmbH.)

Mixed-race African German and Vietnamese German children were born around 1921, when troops drawn from the French colonial empire occupied the Rhineland. These children were forcibly sterilized in 1937. Racial anthropologists had denounced them as "Rhineland Bastards," collected details on them, and persuaded the Nazi public health authorities to sterilize 385 of them. One of the adolescents later gave public interviews about his experiences. Apart from Hans Hauck, very few are known by name, and little is known about how their sterilization affected their lives. None of the 385 received compensation from the German state, either as victims of coerced sterilization or as victims of Nazi medical research. The concerned human geneticists went unprosecuted. ( Am J Public Health . 2022;112(2):248-254. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2021.306593).

The article reconstructs and describes, considering as a background the social political events that took place in the USSR during 1930s-1950s, the scientific biography and input into clinical medicine of professor V. N. Vinogradov (1882-1964), the prominent Soviet therapist, the Hero of Socialist Labor, the USSR State Prize winner (posthumously), the holder of five Orders of Lenin, the Honored Man of Science, the Head of the Chairs of Faculty Therapy of the I. V. Stalin Second Moscow State Medical Institute (1935-1942) and the I. M. Sechenov First Moscow Medical (1943-1964), the full member of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences. The facts of participation of V. N. Vinogradov in the political trials on "The case of the Trotskyst block" (1938, on the side of the prosecution) and on "The case of physicians" (1952-1953, as the accused one) are presented. The issues of existence of the scientific clinical school of V. N. Vinogradov (in a sense, the united school of V. N. Vinogradov-V. G. Popov can be considered) and the phenomenon of leadership of V. N. Vinogradov among the therapeutic elite of the USSR are discussed. This phenomenon consists in dedication to the cause he served and in consecutive implementation of the priority directions of the clinic of internal diseases, developed by the teams of the departments and clinics headed by him in different years.

Franciscus Sylvius, latinized from Franz de le Boë (*15 March 1614 in Hanau; † 14 November 1672 in Leiden), was a Hessian-Dutch physician, anatomist, and natural scientist of Flemish descent. He was an important clinician and iatrochemist, and is considered the founder of scientifically oriented medicine and clinical chemistry. Sylvius introduced the concept of affinity and dealt with digestive processes and body fluids. He was one of the leading exponents of the concept of blood circulation developed by William Harvey. As the person responsible for practical medicine in Leiden, Sylvius established bedside teaching as part of the medical curriculum, and he introduced his students to clinical medicine in an experimental way, both contrary to the rules of the time. He was also interested in pharmacology, herbalism and botany. For heartburn and digestive disorders, Sylvius mixed juniper berries, herbs and alcohol to create a medicine. According to legend, Sylvius marketed this medicine as Genever, for which the name Gin was later adopted in the British Isles, but not only used for medical purposes. Accordingly, the city of birth of Sylvius today calls itself a "birthplace of gin"., Competing Interests: Die Autorinnen/Autoren geben an, dass kein Interessenkonflikt besteht., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Major advances in the French medical system following the French Revolution have stimulated a rich historiography of which Michel Foucault's Naissance de la clinique: une archéologie du regard médical (1963) and Erwin H. Ackerknecht's Medicine at the Paris Hospital, 1794-1848 (1967) are of lasting significance. Changes in the organisation and structure of hospitals accompanied the development and availability of new medical technologies and procedures and encouraged a more intense study of the aetiology and pathology of disease. Theories about asthma and its treatment profited from this dynamic environment as Classical Greek doctrines about the effect of the humours on bodily imbalance gave way to an increasingly more precise understanding of the nature and cause of asthma. The clinician and teacher, Armand Trousseau (1801-1867), who held the chair of Clinical Medicine at the Hôtel-Dieu in Paris and was himself an asthmatic, promoted new theories about the illness and developed innovative ways of dealing with its effects. Among his patients was the banker and financier, Emile Pereire (1800-1875), a lifelong asthmatic. Based on the Pereire Family Archives (hereafter AFP), the case of Emile Pereire provides a preface to the later case of that other, more famous, asthmatic, Marcel Proust.

Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared.

Background: An eponym in clinical medicine is an honorific term ascribed to a person(s) who may have initially discovered or described a device, procedure, anatomical part, treatment, disease, symptom, syndrome, or sign found on physical examination. Signs, although often lacking sufficient sensitivity and specificity, assist in some cases to differentiate and diagnose disease. With the advent of advanced technological tools in radiological imaging and diagnostic testing, the importance of inspection, the initial steps taught during the physical examination, is often overlooked or given only cursory attention. Nevertheless, in the era of evidence-based and cost-effective medicine, it becomes compelling, and we contend that a meticulously performed history and physical examination, applying the basic tenets of inspection, remains paramount prior to obtaining appropriate diagnostic tests., Data Sources: PubMed, Medline, online Internet word searches and bibliographies from source text and textbooks. PubMed was searched using the Medical Subject Heading (MeSH) of the name of the eponyms and text words associated with the sign., Conclusions: We describe the historical aspect, clinical application, and performance of medical eponymous signs of inspection found on physical examination during the 18th to 20th centuries., (© 2019 Marshfield Clinic.)

Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared.

Hermann (Hugh) Blaschko was a biochemical pharmacologist best known for discovering how adrenaline (epinephrine), noradrenaline (norepinephrine), and dopamine were synthesized, stored, and metabolized in adrenomedullary cells and sympathetic nerves. Blaschko's work not only supported the validity of the concept of neurochemical synaptic transmission but he also made fundamental contributions to the development of drugs used in clinical medicine to treat diseases such as depression, hypertension, and Parkinson's Disease.

This article encapsulates the career of Joshua Burn, whose work encouraged new lines of experimentation and paved the way for fundamental advances in our knowledge of the autonomic nervous system. His legacy also endures in his efforts as Department Chairman to oversee a very supportive environment which led to the development of many successful scientists. By producing a body of work that enabled the discipline of pharmacology to contribute in a major way to the advancement of clinical medicine, Joshua Burn stands out as a unique figure in the annals of true scientific pioneers.

The article covers the life and the work of Ivan A. Petrovsky, doctor of medicine. His contribution into propaganda in the Russian Empire of the idea of French physician Pierre-Charles-Alexandre Louis (1787-1872) concerning necessity of applying the statistical method in the clinical medicine. At that, the new facts of the biography of P.-Ch.-A. Louis were established. So, it is established that in Russia he was family doctor in the family of Armand-Charles-Emmanuel de Guignard, Comte de Saint-Priest (1782-1863). This discovery permitted to specify the circumstances of life of P.-Ch.-A. Louis in the Russian Empire. The study is also based on the archive materials founded in the Russian State Military History Archive. They are introduced into the scientific circulation for the first time.

Alfred Gilman was best known for his co-authorship with Louis Goodman of the seminal textbook on pharmacology The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics in 1941. The book made the discipline of pharmacology relevant to clinical medicine by providing a link between the basic medical sciences and the practice of medicine. Gilman was also instrumental in establishing the use of chemotherapy in the treatment of cancer and made important contributions in areas related to renal function, acid-base balance, and diuretics. During the 1960s, he created a first rate department at the newly formed Albert Einstein College of Medicine. A superb lecturer, he commented incisively on issues related to pharmacology, therapeutics, and pathophysiology. Dr Gilman also provided a key link between academia and the pharmaceutical industry by serving as a consultant to several drug firms. The legacy of Alfred Gilman senior was continued by his son, Alfred Goodman Gilman, who became a Nobel Laureate.

The article describes the achievements of James Israel and Max Nitze, who were successfully developing European medicine for more than 30 years of their scientific and practical activities, enriching it with both experimental and large clinical experience. Their scientific and practical accomplishments greatly contributed to the development of modern urology. The author analyzes the fact that the history of medicine gives rich material not only for understanding evolution but also for the possibility to foresee its further development. The current state of clinical urology has been achieved by the progress of basic research in biology, physics, biochemistry, bacteriology, immunology, pharmacology. At the same time, the personality of the scientist-physician, his observation, non-standard view, the ability to see the opening perspectives, to bring up worthy successors and create a scientific and clinical school of urologists, is of utmost importance. The great German urologists J. Israel and M. Nitze had all these fundamental characteristics of a great scientist-physician.

Upon entering clinical medicine in the 1940s, antibiotic therapy seemed to complete a transformation of hospitals that originated in the late nineteenth century. Former death sinks had become harbingers of therapeutic progress. Yet this triumph was short-lived. The arrival of pathologies caused by resistant bacteria, and of nosocomial infections whose spread was helped by antibiotic therapies, seemed to be intimately related to modern anti-infective therapy. The place where such problems culminated were hospitals, which increasingly appeared as dangerous environments where attempts to combat infectious diseases had instead created hothouses of disease evolution. This paper will focus on one aspect of that history. It caused clinical medicine and hospital hygiene in particular to pay attention to a dimension of infectious disease it had previously paid little attention to thus far: The evolution of infectious disease-previously a matter of mostly theoretical interest-came to be useful in explaining many phenomena observed. This did not turn hospital hygienists into geneticists, though it did give them an awareness that the evolution of infectious disease in a broad sense was something that did matter to them. The paper advances its argument by looking at three phases: The growing awareness of the hospital as a dangerous environment in the 1950s, comprehensive attempts at improving antibiotic therapy and hospital hygiene that followed from the 1960s and lastly the framing of such challenges as risk factors from the 1970s. In conclusion, I will argue that hospital hygiene, being inspired in particular by epidemiology and risk factor analysis, discussed its own specific version of disease emergence and therefore contributed to the 1980s debates around such topics. Being loosely connected to more specialized studies, it consisted of a re-interpretation of infectious disease centred around the temporality of such phenomena as they were encountered in day-to-day dealings of clinical wards.

Early eighteenth-century Edinburgh provided a unique learning environment for aspiring practitioners: one in which the unity of medicine and surgery was appreciated and clinical observations and a reasoning practitioner became the well spring of proper patient care. John Rutherford, a surgical apprentice in this environment, student on the wards of London hospitals and under Boerhaave at Leiden, became one of the original medical professors at the University of Edinburgh medical school in 1726. Rutherford taught the popular, theory-based Practice of Medicine for twenty-two years. Then at the end of 1748 he convinced Royal Infirmary of Edinburgh managers to allow him to begin a new lecture series, entitled Clinical Lectures, conducted at the patient's bedside. Pedagogically, the new lecture series integrated medical theory and its application on the ward. Pragmatically, Rutherford used the Clinical Lectures to transition students into practitioners. He oriented the student to the medical profession at large and placed him simultaneously at the patient-disease-physician interface. He taught that systematic patient observation and examination, when combined with experience and reasoning, were essential to accurate diagnoses and proper therapeutic interventions. Importantly too, Rutherford prepared his students for failure through humility, introspection, and the speculative nature of medical practice., (© The Author 2017. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

The article is devoted to the history of the Department of Faculty Therapy, N.N. Burdenko Voronezh State Medical University. The history of its creation is inextricably linked to the Derpth (Yurievsky) University that was transferred to Voronezh in 1918. While the Department of Faculty Therapy remained in Voronezh, it several times changed location making use of various city hospitals as its branches. It simultaneously expanded its activities by organizing courses of physical therapy, endocrinology, and other medical disciplines. The article focuses on the events pertaining to the formation and development of the Department of Faculty Therapy, main directions and achievements of its scientific work.

The article considers changes in mass physician consciousness approaches to diagnostic and treatment of diseases occurred in the end of XIX-first half of XX centuries. It was the result of gaining a foothold in medicine of new view on organism as a procedural system and concepts of diseases as a complex feedback reaction of this system to unfavorable effect of environmental factors. It is demonstrated that the major change in diagnostic became refusal of traditional for XIX century orientation of diagnostic search exclusively on “clinical prediction of pathological picture" in favor of complex evaluation of state of ill person. The scale transformations in medical business affecting clinic of internal diseases and surgery disciplines resulted in that for the first time symptomatic therapy was replaced by comparatively effective ethiotropic and pathogenic treatment.

The article presents the biography of one wonderful doctors, who have high human, civil and professional qualities, Fyodor Ch. Gral.

Efim Osipovich Mukhin is an outstanding representative of Russian medical science who made an important contribution to the development of anatomo-physiological studies, establishment of surgery and traumatology as independent medical disciplines in this country, introduction of smallpox vaccination and aseptics into clinical practice as well as to the improvement of teaching medicine at universities.