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Kaili and Pamona speakers are different language speaking communities living in the Central Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. This study aims to determine the genetic relationship of Kaili and Pamona languages by using lexicostatistics, glottochronology and reconstruction methods. Comparative historical linguistics is used to explain the level of relationship, glottochronology, and dividing evidence of Kaili and Pamona languages. This research reveals new findings strengthening the evidence that Kaili and Pamona are two linguistically and culturally distinct language groups. There are 9 phonemic correspondences between Kaili and Pamona: w ≈ β/-#V; w ≈ β/# -; w ≈ β/V - V (4) w ≈ ɸ/# -; l ≈ j/-#V; l ≈ j/V - V; m ≈ n/# -; b ≈ ɓ/# -; o ≈ a/# K -. In addition, 14 sound variations are also found: l ∼ j/# -; s ∼ β/# -; ŋg ∼ ŋk/V - V; nʤ ∼ nc/V - V; nʤ ∼ nc/# -; nʤ ∼ nc/- V#; ɸ ∼ w/V - V; a ∼ o/#K -; o ∼ e/# -; c ∼ s/- #V; r ∼ d/# -; ŋg ∼ k/#; ŋg ∼ k/# -; ŋ ∼ Ø/# -; and ɓ ∼ Ø/# -. These findings contribute to the development of comparative historical linguistics in general.

Third language (L3) lexical acquisition is still underexplored. In this article I overview theoretical and empirical evidence on L3 lexical acquisition and the role of cross-linguistic influence (CLI) in learning L3 words. I explain the mechanism of CLI as resulting from language co-activation in the multilingual learner's/user's mind. Consequently, I aim to ground L3 lexical studies in previous research on second language (L2) word processing and learning, and to emphasize the role of cross-linguistic similarity (cognates and false cognates) in the process. While capitalizing upon similarity predominantly facilitates acquiring L2 and L3 words, the precise mechanisms of L3 lexical acquisition are still obscured. It is unclear whether any overlap of an L3 form with the native or L2 form suffices to boost learning, or whether all previous languages influence L3 lexical acquisition cumulatively. To seek answers to this issue, I review empirical evidence for CLI and cross-linguistic similarity in L3 vocabulary acquisition from three research strands: L3 word processing experiments, L3 cognate guessing tasks, and L3 word learning experiments. Overall, this article aims to bridge the gap between psycholinguistic and applied linguistic research on L3 lexical acquisition, and argues for controlling an array of variables modulating research outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aims to investigate identical word pairs, word couples that have a phonemic correspondence, and the sound shift in phonological differences, sound variation, sound addition, and lenition. The study uses empirical data collected from 2 Yemeni college students who studied in Indonesia. Two hundred seven of Swadesh's basic vocabulary was used as the standard procedure for collecting data. The results indicated the relationship between form and meaning as a whole, a different pattern. Specifically, the three dimensions - cognate, phonemic correspondence, and a pair of words contain a different pattern, sound-change, phonological, and morpheme contrast in Modern Arabic Standard, Sana’a Yemeni Arabic (YEMS), Dhamar Yemeni Arabic (YEMD). The other sound change in the form of metathesis exposes that there are six rules: five kinds of word syllable systems and dissimilation, three forms of sound addition, and four types of sound loss. This study focuses on sound correspondence in three Arabic languages that influence more variations of Arabic. MSA, YEMS, and YEMD represent a case where two distinct language varieties exist in Yemen. It is anticipated that the findings of this study will help college students and lecturers to understand a phenomenon in Arabic-speaking communities and the significant impact it has on arranging Arabic teaching materials. The value of this research work is evident from the fact that the Arabic language teaching model has neglected the teaching of Arabic variation even though they are essential.

To investigate how orthography and semantics interact during bilingual visual word recognition, Dutch–English bilinguals made lexical decisions in two masked priming experiments. Dutch primes and English targets were presented that were either neighbour cognates (boek – BOOK), noncognate translations (kooi – CAGE), orthographically related neighbours (neus – NEWS), or unrelated words (huid - COAT). Prime durations of 50 ms (Experiment 1) and 83 ms (Experiment 2) led to similar result patterns. Both experiments reported a large cognate facilitation effect, a smaller facilitatory noncognate translation effect, and the absence of inhibitory orthographic neighbour effects. These results indicate that cognate facilitation is in large part due to orthographic-semantic resonance. Priming results for each condition were simulated well (all r's >.50) by Multilink+, a recent computational model for word retrieval. Limitations to the role of lateral inhibition in bilingual word recognition are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present CogNet, a large-scale, automatically-built database of sense-tagged cognates—words of common origin and meaning across languages. CogNet is continuously evolving: its current version contains over 8 million cognate pairs over 338 languages and 35 writing systems, with new releases already in preparation. The paper presents the algorithm and input resources used for its computation, an evaluation of the result, as well as a quantitative analysis of cognate data leading to novel insights on language diversity. Furthermore, as an example on the use of large-scale cross-lingual knowledge bases for improving the quality of multilingual applications, we present a case study on the use of CogNet for bilingual lexicon induction in the framework of cross-lingual transfer learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies using cognates with the same writing system have found cognate facilitation effect in the lexical processes of spoken and typewritten productions and cognate interference effect in the sub-lexical process of typewritten production. This study focused on cross-script cognates, Chinese-English, which have different writing systems, and explored cognate effects based on the input and output modalities by using a Chinese-English translation task. Experiment 1 was under visual input modality and investigated the cross-script cognate effect in all three output modalities: spoken, typewritten and handwritten. Results revealed a cognate facilitation effect in the lexical processes across all three output modalities. However, it showed a cognate facilitation effect rather than a cognate interference effect in the sub-lexical process of typewritten production. Experiment 2 was under auditory input modality and focused on exploring cross-script cognate effect on typewritten and handwritten modalities, finding a consistent result on cognate effects with Experiment 1. Both experiments showed higher accuracy for cognates, and there was no significant difference in cgnate effect between visual and auditory inputs. In summary, these findings indicated that the use of cross-script cognates could effectively mitigate cognate interference. While spoken, handwritten and typewritten production share lexical processes, differences emerge in sub-lexical processes, with spoken production being less influenced by orthography. Furthermore, combining the results of Experiments 1 and 2, typewritten production may lean towards the phonological route while handwritten production may favour the direct lexical-orthographic route in the sub-lexical processes., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflicting interestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

This paper appeals to dialect comparison, Xiesheng and the phonological rule of labialization of velars to explain some cognates in Chinese characters. It is concluded that' ...' and '...' make either respective homophone substitutes or individual coinages for '..., '...', and '...'. A theoretical implication lies in the possible existence of the medial y in Old Chinese. Abruptly changing current usage habit of Chinese characters is impractical. Instead of only negatively digging into the root of character problems, language workers shall positively identify polyphones in order to reduce the learning load of synonyms and to timely curb the development tendency of excessive semantic diversity for certain characters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examines the response patterns of 288 Spanish-English dual language learners on a standardized test of receptive Spanish vocabulary. Investigators analyzed responses to 54 items on the Test de Vocabulario en Imagenes (TVIP) [Dunn, L. M., D. E. Lugo, E. R. Padilla, and L. M. Dunn. 1986. Test de Vocabulario en Imganes Peaboy: Adaptacion Hispanoamericana. Circle Pines, MN: AGS] focusing on differential accuracy on items influenced by (a) cross-linguistic overlap, (b) context (home/school), and (c) word frequency in Spanish. The response patterns showed cross-linguistic overlap in phonology was a significant predictor of accuracy at the item level. After accounting for item number (expected difficulty level), context of exposure was a significant predictor of the likelihood of obtaining a correct response. Spanish word frequency was not a significant predictor of accuracy. The current findings substantiate the influence of cross-linguistic overlap in phonology and context on Spanish vocabulary recognition by Spanish-English speaking children. Children were more likely to obtain correct responses on lexical items that were associated with the home context. Researchers and practitioners should consider phonological cross-linguistic overlap in addition to context of word exposure and word frequency when designing and utilizing vocabulary assessments for children from linguistic minority backgrounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This research explores patterns of lexical activation of both languages of a bilingual when producing spoken words. Specifically, it investigates the influence of within- and cross-language measures of phonological neighbourhood, on the English picture naming performance of a diverse group of French (L1) – English (L2) late bilinguals. A novel phonological neighbourhood density measure was used that took into account the phonological and lexical constraints of this sample of late bilinguals. Results showed that both within- and cross-language neighbours influenced picture naming performance and that the length of exposure to L2 and familiarity of the target modulated these effects, with both facilitatory and inhibitory effects observed. Additionally, the previously well-attested cognate facilitation effect decreased with L2 language exposure. These results support interactive models of word production, within a language non-specific view of lexical access, and show the dynamic nature of a bilingual's lexical connections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article introduces a comparative approach to the structural patterns of verbal phraseological units in English and Romanian as they often raise serious problems to the non-native speakers due to their translation. The aim of this study is to draw the attention to the phraseological similitudes between the two languages but it will also point out the differences and the difficulties when it comes to equivalence.

Language change and biological evolution are sufficiently similar that biologists and linguists often face similar challenges in reconstructing paths of historical change connecting different species or languages. Tracing evolutionary change over time requires us to consider how shared features have been modified in different lineages since they shared a common ancestor, and this means we have to be able to establish meaningful comparability between traits. In some cases, we may wish to understand how the same ancestral trait has been modified in each lineage in response to different pressures. But in other cases, we may wish to ask whether particular traits often arise in response to certain circumstances. Biologists must therefore consider different reasons for similarities between species, and choose to compare those traits that are relevant to the story they want to tell. To reconstruct histories of change, we need to compare homologous traits (those similar due to shared ancestry). But comparing analogous traits (independently derived but similar traits) highlights how separate evolutionary lineages can find similar solutions to common problems. I will illustrate the importance of comparability in constructing evolutionary explanations using one of the more obscure yet fascinating examples of Charles Darwin's scientific researches, his multi-volume taxonomic treatise on barnacles. Darwin faced the challenge of how to explain the evolutionary trajectory of unique and highly modified traits that appear to have no equivalents in related taxa. He did this by tracing the development of unique traits within growing individuals, looking for variation in these strange adaptations between individuals, and comparing them across species that varied in their degree of modification from their ancestor. Using meticulous observations to establish comparability, even in such an incomparable animal as the barnacle, he could reconstruct plausible evolutionary explanations for even the most bizarrely modified traits, such as the presence of parasitic males and the invention of the cement that sticks barnacles to rocks, boats and whales. Nowadays, scientists increasingly rely on DNA evidence to trace evolutionary paths, which brings both advantages and challenges in establishing comparability. Even if you, like most people, are not particularly interested in barnacles, Darwin's underappreciated taxonomic work is a surprisingly good place to go to if you want to think about the issue of comparability and why it matters to understanding evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Choi, Eun ji. 2020. Correlation between the original word knowledge and the strategy of connecting with the original words in the acquisition of loanword in Korean by Chinese speakers. Linguistic Research 37(Special Edition): 163-188. The current study aimed to examine the correlation between knowledge of original words and strategy of connecting loanwords with original words in Chinese students at an intermediate/advanced level of proficiency in Korean language. A total of 47 participants were selected for the study and underwent testing with 29 English loanwords in Korean selected from advanced vocabularies and paired with their origins in English to assess their knowledge and recognition of original words and loanwords and ability to associate loanwords with the corresponding original words. The data were used to determine the correlation between these variables. Correlation analyses revealed a strong significant correlation between original word knowledge and loanword knowledge across participants. However, no significant correlation was observed for original word knowledge with loanword recognition and the ability to connect loanwords and original words. In terms of the English loanwords tested, a significant correlation was found for original word knowledge with loanword knowledge, loanword recognition, and loanword-original word connection. In short, knowledge level of original words was not positively correlated with the abilities to recognize and associate them with the corresponding loanwords. However, knowledge of original words was helpful when learning a loanword that is cognate with the original words. Hence, the current study underscores the need for teaching strategies that allow students who learn Korean as a second language to utilize their knowledge of original words as a means of identifying the loanwords in Korean derived from the original language and uncovering their meaning as well. (Wonkwang Digital University). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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To test the BIA+ and Multilink models' accounts of how bilinguals process words with different degrees of cross-linguistic orthographic and semantic overlap, we conducted two experiments manipulating stimulus list composition. Dutch–English late bilinguals performed two English lexical decision tasks including the same set of cognates, interlingual homographs, English control words, and pseudowords. In one task, half of the pseudowords were replaced with Dutch words, requiring a 'no' response. This change from pure to mixed language list context was found to turn cognate facilitation effects into inhibition. Relative to control words, larger effects were found for cognate pairs with an increasing cross-linguistic form overlap. Identical cognates produced considerably larger effects than non-identical cognates, supporting their special status in the bilingual lexicon. Response patterns for different item types are accounted for in terms of the items' lexical representation and their binding to 'yes' and 'no' responses in pure vs mixed lexical decision. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper highlights published and new field and petrographic observations for late-stage (crustal level) deformation associated with the emplacement of kimberlites and other mantle-derived magmas. Thus, radial and tangential joint sets in the competent 183 Ma Karoo basalt wall rocks to the 5 ha. Lemphane kimberlite blow in northern Lesotho have been ascribed to stresses linked to eruption of the kimberlite magma. Further examples of emplacement-related stresses in kimberlites are brittle fractures and close-spaced parallel shears which disrupt olivine macrocrysts. In each of these examples, there is no evidence of post-kimberlite regional tectonism which might explain these features, indicating that they reflect auto-deformation in the kimberlite during or immediately post-emplacement. On a microscopic scale, these inferred late-stage stresses are reflected by fractures and domains of undulose extinction which traverse core and margins of some euhedral and anhedral olivines in kimberlites and olivine melilitites. Undulose extinction and kink bands have also been documented in olivines in cumulates from layered igneous intrusions. Our observations thus indicate that these deformation features can form at shallow levels (crustal pressures), which is supported by experimental evidence. Undulose extinction and kink bands have previously been presented as conclusive evidence for a mantle provenance of the olivines—i.e. that they are xenocrysts. The observation that these deformation textures can form in both mantle and crustal environments implies that they do not provide reliable constraints on the provenance of the olivines. An understanding of the processes responsible for crustal deformation of kimberlites could potentially refine our understanding of kimberlite emplacement processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study aimed to determine how older bilingual subjects' naming performance is affected by their knowledge of two languages. Twenty-nine aging (mean age = 74.0; SD = 7.1) Spanish-English bilinguals were asked to name all pictures in the Boston Naming Test (BNT) first in their dominant language and then in their less-dominant language. Bilinguals with similar naming scores in each language, or relatively balanced bilinguals, named more pictures correctly when credited for producing a correct name in either language. Balanced bilinguals also named fewer pictures in their dominant language than unbalanced bilinguals, and named more pictures correctly in both languages if the pictures had cognate names (e.g., dart is dardo in Spanish). Unbalanced bilinguals did not benefit from the alternative (either-language) scoring procedure and showed cognate effects only in their nondominant language. These findings may help to guide the interpretation of neuropsychological data for the purpose of determining cognitive status in older bilinguals and can be used to develop models of bilingual language processing. Bilinguals' ability to name pictures reflects their experience with word forms in both languages.

The influences of shared orthography, semantics, and phonology on bilingual cognate processing have been investigated extensively. However, mixed results have been found regarding the effects of phonological similarity on L2 cognate processing. In addition, most existing studies examining the influence of phonological similarity on cognate processing have been conducted on alphabetic scripts, in which phonology and orthography are always associated. Hence, in this study, we recruited Cantonese-Japanese bilinguals who used two logographic scripts, traditional Chinese and Japanese Kanji, to examine the influence of phonological similarity on L2 cognate lexical decision. Importantly, these scripts allow the manipulation of phonological similarity using identical characters across both languages. In addition, we examined how word frequency and L2 proficiency modulate cognate processing. Results showed that although word frequency and L2 proficiency played important roles in cognate processing, there was minimal overall influence of phonological similarity on cognate lexical decision. The latter finding suggests that theoretical models of bilingual word recognition may need to be refined to enhance our understanding of cognate processing regarding the role of phonology among diverse bilingual populations., Competing Interests: Declaration of conflicting interestsThe author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

This study examines the relationship between German second language (L2) learners' awareness of the German lexical stress assignment system and their ability to accurately assign stress to cognate words with predictable lexical stress. Participants were 31 adult L2 German learners from three groups: native English speakers with a range of German proficiency levels (N = 10), native French speakers with intermediate German proficiency (N = 10), and native French speakers with advanced German proficiency (N = 11). They produced target items in a carrier phrase and then indicated both which syllable they stressed and where stress is supposed to fall. Finally, they provided a rule for assigning stress to each word. Stress production accuracy was similar across the groups, regardless of L1 or L2 proficiency. Participants' ability to verbalize where they had placed stress was a significant predictor of stress assignment accuracy. They produced relatively few rules overall, and the rules they produced were mostly inaccurate. The results point to the greater importance of self-assessment over the ability to produce discrete rules in accurate lexical stress assignment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studied the differences and similarities in the lexicon of Standard Yoruba, Ìkàré Àkókó and Àkúré dialects. We examined the lexicostatistics comparison of the lexicons in Standard Yorùbá, Ìkàré Àkókó and Àkúré dialects. The paper aims at determining the level of mutual intelligibility in Standard Yorùbá, Ìkàré Àkókó and Àkúré speech forms. The objectives of this study were: (i) to find out the areas of similarities and differences of the lexical items of the dialects, (ii) to examine the phonological relatedness of the three dialects and (iii) to determine the cognate percentage of relatedness among the three dialects. The data for this paper were collected from six native speakers using the SIL Comparative African Wordlist of basic lexical items. The numeral system, animal nouns and edible nouns were selected from the wordlist in which they were compared using the comparative method and a lexicostatistics analysis was done. The comparative method and the lexicostatistics analysis were used as the framework for Standard Yorùbá, Ìkàré Àkókó and Àkúré dialects to determine the level of lexical correspondence among them. The findings of this study revealed that there is a higher cognate percentage between Standard Yorùbá and Àkúré with 86.40% cognates, with Ìkàré Àkókó and Àkúré having 74.60% cognates and Standard Yorùbá and Ìkàré Àkókó with 78.90% cognates. This paper concluded that there is a higher level of mutual intelligibility between Standard Yorùbá and Àkúré than Standard Yorùbá and Ìkàré Àkókó while the level of mutual intelligibility between Ìkàré Àkókó and Àkúré is low. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The computational BIA+ model (Dijkstra & Van Heuven, 2002) has provided a useful account for bilingual word recognition, while the verbal (pre-quantitative) RHM (Kroll & Stewart, 1994) has often served as a reference framework for bilingual word production and translation. According to Brysbaert and Duyck (2010), a strong need is felt for a unified implemented account of bilingual word comprehension, lexical-semantic processing, and word production. With this goal in mind, we built a localist-connectionist model, called Multilink, which integrates basic assumptions of both BIA+ and RHM. It simulates the recognition and production of cognates (form-similar translation equivalents) and non-cognates of different lengths and frequencies in tasks like monolingual and bilingual lexical decision, word naming, and word translation production. It also considers effects of lexical similarity, cognate status, relative L2-proficiency, and translation direction. Model-to-model comparisons show that Multilink provides higher correlations with empirical data than both IA and BIA+ models. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Phonological similarity affects bilingual lexical access of etymologically-related translation equivalents (ETEs). Jinan Mandarin (JM) and Standard Chinese (SC) are closely related and share many ETEs, which are usually orthographically and segmentally identical but vary in tonal similarity. Using an auditory lexical decision experiment and Generalised Additive Modelling, the present study investigates how cross-linguistic tonal similarity interacts with language of operation and how the switching of language across blocks influences SC-JM bilinguals' auditory lexical processing of ETEs. Bilinguals showed a language dominance effect, indicating that ETEs are specified with separated word-form representations. Compared with SC tonal monolinguals, bilinguals showed a discontinuous bilingual auditory lexical advantage, instead of a classical bilingual lexical disadvantage. The dynamic role of cross-linguistic tonal similarity in auditory word processing is discussed in light of the bilinguals' attentional shift with the change of language mode at the pre-lexical and lexical stages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims: The present study aims to examine the cross-script cognate facilitation effect that cognates have processing advantages over non-cognates and this effect is strong evidence supporting the non-selective access hypothesis for bilinguals. Methodology: By adopting a masked translation priming paradigm, Experiment 1 used 48 Chinese–English cognates (Chinese words) and 48 non-cognates (Chinese words) as primes and their English translation equivalences as targets. Chinese–English bilinguals were instructed to judge whether the target stimuli were real words or not. In Experiment 2, another group of participants took the same lexical decision task as in Experiment 1, except that English–Chinese cognates and non-cognates (English words) served as primes and their Chinese translation equivalences were targets. Data and analysis: Response latency and accuracy data were submitted to a repeated-measures analysis of variance. Findings/conclusions: Experiment 1 showed that Chinese–English cognates (Chinese words) and non-cognates (Chinese words) produced similar priming effect, while Experiment 2 revealed that English–Chinese cognates (English words) generated a significant priming effect, whereas non-cognates (English words) failed to induce any priming effect. Overall, Chinese words did not show cognate advantage, while English words produced a significant cognate facilitation effect. These results might be attributed to different mappings from orthography to phonology in English and Chinese. Opaque mapping from orthography to phonology in Chinese hindered phonological activation and reduced Chinese–English cognate phonological priming effect. However, English–Chinese cognates benefited from transparent mapping from sound to print and thus generated a significant phonological priming effect. Implications of the current findings for bilingual word recognition models were discussed. Originality: The present study is the first to investigate the cross-script cognate facilitation effect by ensuring both the heterogeneity of primes and targets (English and Chinese) and the homogeneity of primes (Chinese or English). The results indicated that the writing systems of the primes constrained the cross-script cognate priming effect. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article introduces a comparative approach to the structural patterns of verbal phraseological units in English and Romanian as they often raise serious problems to the non-native speakers due to their translation. The aim of this study is to draw the attention to the phraseological similitudes between the two languages but it will also point out the differences and the difficulties when it comes to equivalence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

English and Arabic belong to different language families since they have different grammar and structures .The main purpose of this paper is to show similarities and differences between English and Arabic objects in terms of syntactic and semantic classification. Moreover, the current paper aims at highlighting the divergences and convergences that exist between English and Arabic objects from syntactic and semantic point of view .The paper falls into three sections: section one sheds some light on basic terms that are of relevance to the core of the study. Section two deals with the syntactic and semantic analysis of English objects. Section three deals with the syntactic and semantic analysis of Arabic objects. The main findings that this paper has come up with can be summarized as follows : an object is an entity or participant that undergoes an action done by the performer of the action. Syntactically speaking, an English object can be direct , indirect or complement .Semantically speaking , objects can be affected , recipient, attribute and effected. Syntactically speaking , Arabic objects can be cognate , causative ,or concomitant .Semantically speaking , Arabic objects can come as a receiver , agentive or beneficiary. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]