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Background: Taking notes during learning has benefits both during class (through writing things down to encode information) and after class (by using written notes as external storage for revision). Comparisons of note‐taking methods (i.e., using paper or a computer) have mainly shown that paper leads to better learning. However, previous studies have mostly been conducted in laboratory contexts. Aims: The current study investigates university students' perceptions of the efficacity of their own preferred note‐taking method, along with the strategies they employ. Sample: Data were collected from 108 university students. Methods: Students answered a questionnaire about their note‐taking strategies during initial note‐taking (in class) and revision (after class). Results: The results show that students who take notes on paper do not consider their method to be more effective, but they report engaging in more reformulation and less multitasking. Students who take notes on a computer are more likely to reformat their notes, and thus to reformulate at a later stage. For all students, review sheets are mostly done on paper. Conclusions: These results suggest that although students are not necessarily aware of the benefits of reformulation associated with handwriting on paper during initial note‐taking, when revising, they tend to choose handwriting and benefit from reformulation when aiming for deeper processing. Therefore, revision activities remain mainly paper‐based. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning from videos is becoming an important part of educational activities. Whereas outlines have great potential, particularly during information seeking (IS), few studies have so far explored the effect of their presence in videos. The two aims of the present study were thus to 1) evaluate the influence of outlines on IS and learning, and 2) analyze the extent to which an IS task can optimize the use of outlines during learning. As outlines are known to have a positive impact on video representation during IS tasks, we predicted that performing an IS task prior to a learning task featuring an outline would result in better content representation by learners. A total of 103 participants were divided into four groups (2 × 2 factorial design): with or without an outline, and with or without IS questions before learning. Results indicated that the presence of an outline promotes topic recall in terms of both the number and organization of the topics recalled, and performing an IS task with an outline before learning promotes content memorization to a small extent. Results are discussed in terms of engagement and metacognitive processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Learning from videos is becoming an important part of educational activities, but video content may be difficult to process, mainly because its organization is not very salient in this medium. The learner's organization process should be enhanced by (1) displaying the structure (ie, table of contents) in the video‐based environment, and (2) proposing interactivity tools (interactive table of contents and cued timeline) to use this structure in a more efficient way. A total of 57 participants (higher education students) were divided into three groups (no table of contents, table of contents, and interactive table of contents) to assess the effects of displaying a structure on learning outcomes and behaviours. Results showed that tables of contents boosted topic recall, and interactivity allowed learners to perform more relevant reviewing behaviours. However, reviewing behaviours appear to be broadly timeline‐driven, and learners did not actively use the interactive table of contents. No significant effect was found on other learning outcomes (ie, content memorization and comprehension). One suggestion is that a table of contents, especially when it is interactive, can be an organizational aid during the construction of a mental model, but learners may underestimate its usefulness. Practitioner notesWhat is already known about this topic Educational videos are increasingly being used for learningAccording to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, organizing incoming information is essential for learningIn written documents, a table of contents may serve as an organizational aidIn information‐seeking tasks, an interactive table of contents improves localization.What this paper adds Adding a table of contents to a video may promote topic recall, but not content learning.An interactive table of contents may enhance consultation strategies (eg, reviewing information).Learners tend to use timelines, rather than tables of contents, to navigate videos.Implications for practice When designing an educational video, adding an interactive table of contents may enhance the quality of learning.Different strategies seem to be employed by learners, with some of them displaying no reviewing behaviours at all.Learners may underestimate the usefulness of the table of contents, so it may be necessary to encourage then to use it. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Videos are increasingly being used in education and training,but can lead to specific difficulties in terms of users' learning processes, owing to the transient nature of the information that is delivered. To cope with potential cognitive overload, learner controls can be provided (e.g., pause button), but novice users' mental models may not be sufficiently relevant for them to know when to halt the video. Given that procedural learning involves memorizing an organized and discrete sequence of behaviors, we tested the assumption that providing control buttons is not sufficient for novice learners, and introducing a system-paced interruption at each procedural step is far more effective, when it comes to learning a clinical skill. In the present study, 68 occupational therapy students were divided into three groups: noninteractive video, interactive video (with learner-paced control), and segmented interactive video (interactive video with system-paced interruptions). Results showed the superiority of the segmented format for procedural learning, but no significant difference between conditions for recall test. Users made very little use of the pause button when it was available. These findings support the importance of using segmented instructional videos to reinforce representations of procedures in memory for novice learners and reduce cognitive load. Highlights • We studied the effects of segmentation and pacing on procedural learning by video. • Students made very little use of the pause button when it was available. • Using segmented videos improve procedural learning and reduce cognitive load. • Results are discussed in terms of temporal cueing and cognitive load hypotheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Information seeking (IS) has become a critical activity in video‐based environments. Up to now, the effects of support on information seeking (i.e., scaffolding) have seldom been assessed. The twofold aim of the current study was to (a) assess the effects of scaffolding on IS in videos and (b) determine the characteristics of the users' mental models after an IS activity with or without scaffolding. We divided 50 participants into two groups that either did or did not benefit from initial scaffolding during an IS task. Both groups then had to perform a localization task without any further access to scaffolding. Results showed that scaffolding the video by providing a table of contents and markers on a timeline helped students to engage in highly efficient IS, but they had less accurate mental representations of the video than those without scaffolding. The hypothesis that scaffolding provides a usable but external model was therefore supported. Lay Description: What is already known about this topic: Videos are increasingly used in learning.Searching for information in videos may be a complex activity.So far, very few studies have been conducted on the potential effect of scaffolding videos during an information‐seeking (IS) task. What this paper adds: In this study, we put in place the scaffolding of the video by adding a table of contents and markers on the timeline.Structuration and segmentation have positive effects on the performance in IS, in terms of response success, time spent on each search, relevance, and perceived difficulty.Scaffolding has a negative impact on the users' internal representations of the video. Implications for practice: Incorporating a table of contents and a structured timeline into a video facilitates the search activity.Without scaffolding, the search activity is longer and cognitively more costly.Paradoxically, users have a poorer representation of the video (i.e., poorer mental model) after the IS task when they were given scaffolding.Future studies should focus on the benefits of providing structuring and segmentation in learning tasks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of e-learning, and more specifically MOOCs, searching for information in videos is becoming a key activity in education. Many studies have focused on learning in video-based environments, but to our knowledge, they have left aside the question of search tasks. We hypothesized that information-seeking activity can be improved by adapting features of the learning environment, more particularly by providing micro- and/or macroscaffolding. To test this hypothesis, we assessed the effects of presentation during a search activity in a video-based environment. A total of 80 students were divided into four groups, then exposed to a video 1) with or without a table of contents (macroscaffolding), and 2) with or without markers in the timeline (microscaffolding). Results showed that micro- and macroscaffolding both have positive effects on search outcomes, but also that they need to be used in combination to improve search times. One possible interpretation is that, in the absence of scaffolding, users have to compensate by constructing their own mental representations of the video segmentation, which is cognitively very costly and highly time consuming. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

University students often engage in multimedia (e.g., texting or social networks) and nonmultimedia (e.g., chatting with neighbors) off-task multitasking behaviors during courses. The aim of the present study was to describe these off-task multitasking behaviors and analyze their effects on learning performance in a real teaching session. More specifically, 187 students attended a cognitive psychology tutorial as usual, taking notes either on paper or on a laptop. In an effort to preserve the ecological setting, they were not informed of our research on multitasking. After 20 min, students had to report the number and duration of off-task multitasking behaviors they had engaged in and complete a learning questionnaire. Results showed that multimedia and nonmultimedia multitasking behaviors were frequent but also additive, especially among students who used a laptop. These behaviors had a negative impact on students' memorization of course content, although we found no significant effects on comprehension. Our study also showed that students who used a laptop had lower memory scores. A mediation analysis confirmed that this deleterious effect was partly attributable to multitasking. These results are discussed in terms of interference between off-task behaviors and the cognitive processes essential for learning. • We studied off-task multitasking effects on learning in a real-life teaching session. • Students engaged in numerous multimedia and nonmultimedia multitasking behaviors. • Multitasking behaviors had a negative impact on the memorization of lecture content. • Students who used a laptop engaged in more multitasking and had lower memory scores. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]